Iron Age states of modern Syria and Turkey
Luwian and
Aramean states (
c. 800 BCE)
The states called Neo-Hittite , Syro-Hittite (in older literature), or Luwian-Aramean (in modern scholarly works) were
Luwian and
Aramean regional
polities of the
Iron Age , situated in southeastern parts of modern
Turkey and northwestern parts of modern
Syria , known in ancient times as lands of
Hatti and
Aram . They arose following the collapse of the
Hittite New Kingdom in the 12th century BCE, and lasted until they were subdued by the
Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BCE. They are grouped together by scholars, on the basis of several cultural criteria, that are recognized as similar and mutually shared between both societies, northern (
Luwian ) and southern (
Aramaean ). Cultural exchange between those societies is seen as a specific regional phenomenon, particularly in light of significant linguistic distinctions between the two main regional languages, with
Luwian belonging to the
Anatolian group of
Indo-European languages and
Aramaic belonging to the
Northwest Semitic group of
Semitic languages . Several questions related to the regional grouping of Luwian and Aramaean states are viewed differently among scholars, including some views that are critical towards such grouping in general.
Name
İvriz relief , with God
Teshub (on the left) and king
Warpalawas (ca 730-710 BCE) (right)
One of the most contested issues within the field is related to the choice of proper terms for this group of states. On that issue, scholars are divided into several categories. Some prefer terms that are derived from
endonymic (native) names for
Luwians and
Arameans , thus using terms like Luwian-Aramean or Aramean-Luwian . Others prefer to use terms that are derived from various
exonymic (foreign) names, thus proposing designations like Syrian-Anatolian or Syro-Anatolian , based on Greek term
Anatolia , combined with anachronistic application of
Syrian labels, in the sense that was introduced much later, by ancient Greeks, as their designation for Arameans and their land (
Aram ). Such preference for foreign terms, advocated by some western scholars, is viewed as being
culturally biased , and thus insensitive towards native (endonymic) terminology. Some scholars still use older terms, like Syro-Hittite and Neo-Hittite , but those terms have several additional meanings in scholarly literature. More precise term Post-Hittite is also used, as a broad designation for the entire period of Anatolian history spanning from the 12th to the 6th century BCE.
Anachronistic uses of
Syrian labels in modern scholarly literature were additionally challenged after the recent discovery of the bilingual
Çineköy inscription from the 8th century BCE, written in
Luwian and
Phoenician languages. The inscription contained references to the neighbouring
Assyria , inscribed in a specific form that renders as Syria , thus providing additional (and in the same time the oldest) evidence for the dominant scholarly view on the origins and primary meanings of the term Syria , that originated as an
apheretic form of the term Assyria, and was redefined much later, by ancient Greeks, who introduced a territorial distinction between two names, and started to use term Syria as a specific designation for western regions (ancient
Aram ). For ancient Luwians, Syria was designation for
Assyria proper, thus revealing the later Greek use of the term Syria as very different from its original meaning, and also anachronistic if used in modern scientific descriptions of historical realities, related to Luwian and Aramean states of the Iron Age.
Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition
The
Hittite New Kingdom and its zone of influence (political and cultural) during the 14th and the 13th centuries BCE
The collapse of the
Hittite New Kingdom is usually associated with the gradual decline of Eastern Mediterranean trade networks and the resulting
collapse of major Late Bronze Age cities in the Levant, Anatolia and the Aegean. At the beginning of the 12th century BCE,
Wilusa (
Troy ) was destroyed
[16] and the
Hittite New Kingdom suffered a sudden devastating attack from the
Kaskas , who occupied the coasts around the
Black Sea , and who joined with the
Mysians . They proceeded to destroy almost all Hittite sites but were finally defeated by the
Assyrians beyond the southern borders near the
Tigris .
Hatti ,
Arzawa (
Lydia ),
Alashiya (
Cyprus ),
Ugarit and
Alalakh were destroyed.
Hattusa , the
Hittite capital, was completely destroyed. Following this collapse of large cities and the Hittite state, the Early Iron Age in northern
Mesopotamia saw a dispersal of settlements and ruralization, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages, and farmsteads.
[18] Syro-Hittite states emerged in the process of such major landscape transformation, in the form of regional states with new political structures and cultural affiliations. David Hawkins was able to trace a dynastic link between the Hittite imperial dynasty and the "Great Kings" and "Country-lords" of Melid and Karkamish of the Early Iron Age, proving an uninterrupted continuity between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age at those sites.
[21]
Aside from literary evidence from inscriptions, the uninterrupted cultural continuity of Post-Hittite states in the region, during the transitional period between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, is now further confirmed by recent archaeological work at the Temple of the Storm God on the citadel of
Aleppo ,
[22] and
Ain Dara temple ,
[23] where the Late Bronze Age temple buildings continue into the Iron Age without hiatus, with repeated periods of construction in the Early Iron Age.
List of Syro-Hittite states
Various
Luwian and
Aramean (orange shades) states in the 8th century BCE
The Syro–Hittite states may be divided into two groups: a northern group where
Hittite rulers remained in power, and a southern group where
Aramaeans came to rule from about 1000 BCE. These states were highly decentralised structures; some appear to have been only loose confederations of sub-kingdoms.
[24]
The northern group includes:
The southern group includes:
Inscriptions
Luwian monumental inscriptions in
Anatolian hieroglyphs continue almost uninterrupted from the 13th-century Hittite imperial monuments to the Early Iron Age Syro-Hittite inscriptions of Karkemish, Melid, Aleppo and elsewhere.
[30] Luwian hieroglyphs were chosen by many of the Syro-Hittite regional kingdoms for their monumental inscriptions, which often appear in bi- or tri-lingual inscriptions with
Aramaic ,
Phoenician or
Akkadian versions. The Early Iron Age in Northern
Mesopotamia also saw a gradual spread of alphabetic writing in
Aramaic and
Phoenician . During the cultural interactions on the Levantine coast of Syro-Palestine and North Syria in the tenth through 8th centuries BCE, Greeks and
Phrygians adopted the alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians.
[31]
See also
References
^ C. Mossé (1984). La Grèce archaïcque d'Homère à Eschyle . Editions du Seuil. Paris: p. 35.
^ See Wilkinson, Tony J.; 2003. Archaeological landscapes of the Near East. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.
^ See "Karkamish" and "Melid" in Hawkins, John David; 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. (3 vols) De Gruyter: Berlin.
^ Kohlmeyer, Kay; 2000a. Der Tempel des Wettergottes von Aleppo. Münster: Rhema.
^ Abū Assaf, Alī; 1990. Der Tempel von ءAin Dārā. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern.
^ Tübinger Bibelatlas / Tübingen Bible Atlas . Siegfried Mittmann, Götz Schmitt (eds.), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2001, Map B IV 13-14
^ D. T. Potts (27 April 2012).
A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East . Wiley. p. 802.
ISBN
9781444360769 .
^ See the
Tayinat Website
Archived 2014-05-27 at the
Wayback Machine by the Department of Near & Middle Eastern Civilizations at the University of Toronto
^ Hawkins; 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I, Inscriptions of the Iron Age, De Gruyter, pp. 17-23; Giusfredi; Federico; 2010. Sources for a Socio-Economic History of the Neo-Hittie States, Winter Verlag, pp. 37-44; Simon, Zsolt; 2011. Hethitische Topoi in der hieroglyphen-luwischen Historiographie: Bemerkungen zur Frage der Kontinuität, in M. Hutter and S. Hutter-Braunsar, Hethitische Literatur Überlieferungsprozess,Textstrukturen, Ausdrucksformen Und Nachwirken, Ugarit Verlag, pp. 227-244.
^ Brixhe, C. and M. Lejeune (1984). Corpus des inscriptions paléo-phrygiennes . Paris.
Sources
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9789004398535 .
Bagg, Ariel M. (2019).
"At the Limits of Historical Geography: Reconstructing Aramaean Territories in the West According to the Neo-Assyrian Written Sources" . Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 1–25.
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Bryce, Trevor R. (2012).
The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History . New York: Oxford University Press.
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"The Kingdom of Arpad/Bīt-Agūsi: Its Capital, and Its Borders" . Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 172–202.
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"A People without Borders? Tracing the Shifting Identities and Territorialities of the Ahlameans" . Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 26–62.
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Gilibert, Alessandra (2011).
Syro-Hittite Monumental Art and the Archaeology of Performance: The Stone Reliefs at Carchemish and Zincirli in the Earlier First Millennium BCE . Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter.
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Hawkins, John David (1982).
"The Neo-Hittite States in Syria and Anatolia" . The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 372–441.
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"The end of the Bronze age in Anatolia: New Light from Recent Discoveries" . Anatolian Iron Ages . Vol. 3. London-Ankara: British Institute of Archeology at Ankara. pp. 91–94.
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"Karkamish and Karatepe: Neo-Hittite City-States in North Syria" . Civilizations of the Ancient Near East . Vol. 2. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. pp. 1295–1307.
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Messo, Johny (2011).
"The Origin of the Terms Syria(n) and Suryoyo: Once Again" . Parole de l'Orient . 36 : 111–125.
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Richelle, Matthieu (2019).
"The Fluctuating Borders of Hamath (10th–8th Centuries B.C.E.)" . Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 203–228.
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Sader, Hélène (2010).
"The Aramaeans of Syria: Some Considerations on their Origin and Material Culture" . The Books of Kings: Sources, Composition, Historiography and Reception . Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 273–300.
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"History" . The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria . Leiden: Brill. pp. 11–36.
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External links
Bronze Age Iron Age Classical Age
Territories/ dates
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Egypt
Canaan
Ebla
Mari
Kish /
Assur
Akshak /
Akkad
Uruk
Adab
Umma
Lagash
Ur
Elam
4000–3200 BCE
Naqada I
Naqada II
Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)
Susa I
Uruk period (4000–3100 BCE)
(
Anu Ziggurat , 4000 BCE)
(Anonymous "King-priests")
Susa II
(Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE
Proto-Dynastic period (
Naqada III ) Early or legendary kings:
Upper Egypt
Finger Snail
Fish
Pen-Abu Animal
Stork
Canide
Bull
Scorpion I
Shendjw
Iry-Hor
Ka
Scorpion II
Narmer /
Menes
Lower Egypt
Hedju Hor
Ny-Hor
Hsekiu
Khayu
Tiu
Thesh
Neheb
Wazner
Nat-Hor
Mekh
Double Falcon
Wash
3100–2900 BCE
Early Dynastic Period
First Dynasty of Egypt
Narmer Palette
Narmer
Menes
Neithhotep ♀ (regent)
Hor-Aha
Djer
Djet
Merneith ♀ (regent)
Den
Anedjib
Semerkhet
Qa'a
Sneferka
Horus Bird
Canaanites
Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BCE)
Proto-Elamite
period (
Susa III ) (3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE
Second Dynasty of Egypt
Hotepsekhemwy
Nebra/Raneb
Nynetjer
Ba
Nubnefer
Horus Sa
Weneg-Nebty
Wadjenes
Senedj
Seth-Peribsen
Sekhemib-Perenmaat
Neferkara I
Neferkasokar
Hudjefa I
Khasekhemwy
Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
First Eblaite Kingdom
First kingdom of Mari
Kish I dynasty
Jushur ,
Kullassina-bel
Nangishlishma ,
En-tarah-ana
Babum ,
Puannum ,
Kalibum
2800 BCE
Kalumum
Zuqaqip
Atab
Mashda
Arwium
Etana
Balih
En-me-nuna
Melem-Kish
Barsal-nuna
Uruk I dynasty
Mesh-ki-ang-gasher
Enmerkar ("conqueror of
Aratta ")
2700 BCE
Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
Zamug ,
Tizqar ,
Ilku
Iltasadum
Lugalbanda
Dumuzid, the Fisherman
Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")
[6]
Aga of Kish
Gilgamesh
Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE)
Indus-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE
Third Dynasty of Egypt
Djoser
(First
Egyptian pyramids )
Sekhemkhet
Sanakht
Nebka
Khaba
Qahedjet
Huni
Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
Sagisu
Abur-lim
Agur-lim
Ibbi-Damu
Baba-Damu
Kish II dynasty (5 kings)
Uhub
Mesilim
Ur-Nungal
Udulkalama
Labashum
Lagash
En-hegal
Lugal- shaengur
Ur
A-Imdugud
Ur-Pabilsag
Meskalamdug (Queen
Puabi )
Akalamdug
Enun-dara-anna
Mes-he
Melamanna
Lugal-kitun
Adab
Nin-kisalsi
Me-durba
Lugal-dalu
2575 BCE
Old Kingdom of Egypt
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Snefru
Khufu
Djedefre
Khafre
Bikheris
Menkaure
Shepseskaf
Thamphthis
Ur I dynasty
Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE
Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE)
Second kingdom of Mari
Ikun-Shamash
Iku-Shamagan
Ansud
Sa'umu
Ishtup-Ishar
Ikun-Mari
Iblul-Il
Nizi
Kish III dynasty
Ku-Baba ♀
Akshak dynasty
Unzi
Undalulu
Uruk II dynasty
Ensha- kushanna
Mug-si
Umma I dynasty
Pabilgagaltuku
Lagash I dynasty
Ur-Nanshe
Akurgal
A'annepada
Meskiagnun
Elulu
Balulu
Awan dynasty
Peli
Tata
Ukkutahesh
Hishur
2450 BCE
Fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Userkaf
Sahure
Neferirkare Kakai
Neferefre
Shepseskare
Nyuserre Ini
Menkauhor Kaiu
Djedkare Isesi
Unas
Enar-Damu
Ishar-Malik
Ush
Enakalle
Elamite invasions (3 kings)
[6]
Shushun- tarana
Napilhush
2425 BCE
Kun-Damu
Eannatum
(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE
Adub-Damu
Igrish-Halam
Irkab-Damu
Kish IV dynasty
Puzur-Suen
Ur-Zababa
Urur
Lugal-kinishe-dudu
Lugal-kisalsi
E-iginimpa'e
Meskigal
Ur-Lumma
Il
Gishakidu (Queen
Bara-irnun )
Enannatum
Entemena
Enannatum II
Enentarzi
Ur II dynasty Nanni
Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II
Kiku-siwe-tempti
2380 BCE
Sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Teti
Userkare
Pepi I
Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
Pepi II
Merenre Nemtyemsaf II
Netjerkare Siptah
Adab dynasty
Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE
Isar-Damu
Enna-Dagan
Ikun-Ishar
Ishqi-Mari
Invasion by
Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter
[6]
Ukush
Lugalanda
Urukagina
Luh-ishan
2350 BCE
Puzur-Nirah
Ishu-Il
Shu-Sin
Uruk III dynasty
Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
2340 BCE
Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
Akkadian Empire
Sargon of Akkad
Rimush
Manishtushu
Akkadian Governors:
Eshpum
Ilshu-rabi
Epirmupi
Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE
Naram-Sin
Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE
First Intermediate Period
Seventh Dynasty of Egypt
Eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Menkare
Neferkare II
Neferkare Neby
Djedkare Shemai
Neferkare Khendu
Merenhor
Neferkamin
Nikare
Neferkare Tereru
Neferkahor
Neferkare Pepiseneb
Neferkamin Anu
Qakare Ibi
Neferkaure
Neferkauhor
Neferirkare
Second
Eblaite Kingdom
Third kingdom of Mari (
Shakkanakku dynasty)
Ididish
Shu-Dagan
Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians)
Shar-Kali-Sharri
Igigi ,
Imi ,
Nanum ,
Ilulu (3 years)
Dudu
Shu-turul
Uruk IV dynasty
Ur-nigin
Ur-gigir
Lagash II dynasty
Puzer-Mama
Ur-Ningirsu I
Pirig-me
Lu-Baba
Lu-gula
Ka-ku
Hishep-Ratep
Helu
Khita
Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE
Ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryibre Khety
Neferkare VII
Nebkaure Khety
Setut
Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
Nûr-Mêr
Ishtup-Ilum
Ishgum-Addu
Apil-kin
Gutian dynasty (21 kings)
La-erabum
Si'um
Kuda (Uruk)
Puzur-ili
Ur-Utu
Umma II dynasty
Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians)
Ur-Baba
Gudea
Ur-Ningirsu
Ur-gar
Nam-mahani
Tirigan
2125 BCE
Tenth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryhathor
Neferkare VIII
Wahkare Khety
Merykare
Uruk V dynasty
Utu-hengal
2100 BCE
(Vassals of UR III)
Iddi-ilum
Ili-Ishar
Tura-Dagan
Puzur-Ishtar (Vassals of Ur III)
[7]
Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"
Ur-Nammu
Shulgi
Amar-Sin
Shu-Sin
2025-1763 BCE
Amorite invasions
Ibbi-Sin
Elamite invasions
Kindattu (
Shimashki Dynasty )
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt
Mentuhotep I
Intef I
Intef II
Intef III
Mentuhotep II
Mentuhotep III
Mentuhotep IV
Third Eblaite Kingdom (
Amorites )
Ibbit-Lim
Immeya
Indilimma
(
Amorite
Shakkanakkus )
Hitial-Erra
Hanun-Dagan (...)Lim Dynasty of
Mari (
Amorites )
Yaggid-Lim
Yahdun-Lim
Yasmah-Adad
Zimri-Lim (Queen
Shibtu )
Old Assyria
Puzur-Ashur I
Shalim-ahum
Ilu-shuma
Erishum I
Ikunum
Sargon I
Puzur-Ashur II
Naram-Sin
Erishum II
Isin-Larsa period (
Amorites )
Dynasty of Isin :
Ishbi-Erra
Shu-Ilishu
Iddin-Dagan
Ishme-Dagan
Lipit-Eshtar
Ur-Ninurta
Bur-Suen
Lipit-Enlil
Erra-imitti
Enlil-bani
Zambiya
Iter-pisha
Ur-du-kuga
Suen-magir
Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa :
Naplanum
Emisum
Samium
Zabaia
Gungunum
Abisare
Sumuel
Nur-Adad
Sin-Iddinam
Sin-Eribam
Sin-Iqisham
Silli-Adad
Warad-Sin
Rim-Sin I (...)
Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty : Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk
Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam
Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu
Sukkalmah dynasty
Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
Amenemhat I
Senusret I
Amenemhat II
Senusret II
Senusret III
Amenemhat III
Amenemhat IV
Sobekneferu ♀
1800–1595 BCE
Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Abraham (
Biblical )
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon
Yamhad (
Yamhad dynasty ) (Amorites)
Old Assyria
(
Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites)
Shamshi-Adad I
Ishme-Dagan I
Mut-Ashkur
Rimush
Asinum
Ashur-dugul
Ashur-apla-idi
Nasir-Sin
Sin-namir
Ipqi-Ishtar
Adad-salulu
Adasi
(Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE)
Puzur-Sin
Ashur-dugul
Ashur-apla-idi
Nasir-Sin
Sin-namir
Ipqi-Ishtar
Adad-salulu
Adasi
(
Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE)
Bel-bani
Libaya
Sharma-Adad I
Iptar-Sin
Bazaya
Lullaya
Shu-Ninua
Sharma-Adad II
Erishum III
Shamshi-Adad II
Ishme-Dagan II
Shamshi-Adad III
Ashur-nirari I
Puzur-Ashur III
Enlil-nasir I
Nur-ili
Ashur-shaduni
Ashur-rabi I
Ashur-nadin-ahhe I
Enlil-Nasir II
Ashur-nirari II
Ashur-bel-nisheshu
Ashur-rim-nisheshu
Ashur-nadin-ahhe II
First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (
Amorites )
Sumu-abum
Sumu-la-El
Sin-muballit
Sabium
Apil-Sin
Sin-muballit
Hammurabi
Samsu-iluna
Abi-eshuh
Ammi-ditana
Ammi-saduqa
Samsu-Ditana
Early Kassite rulers
Second Babylonian dynasty ("
Sealand Dynasty ")
Ilum-ma-ili
Itti-ili-nibi
Damqi-ilishu
Ishkibal
Shushushi
Gulkishar
m DIŠ+U-EN
Peshgaldaramesh
Ayadaragalama
Akurduana
Melamkurkurra
Ea-gamil
Second Intermediate Period
Sixteenth Dynasty
Abydos Dynasty
Seventeenth Dynasty
Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("
Hyksos ")
Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos
Semqen
'Aper-'Anati
Sakir-Har
Khyan
Apepi
Khamudi
Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE)
Kirta
Shuttarna I
Parshatatar
1531–1155 BCE
Tutankhamun
New Kingdom of Egypt
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ahmose I
Amenhotep I
Third Babylonian dynasty (
Kassites )
Agum-Kakrime
Burnaburiash I
Kashtiliash III
Ulamburiash
Agum III
Karaindash
Kadashman-harbe I
Kurigalzu I
Kadashman-Enlil I
Burnaburiash II
Kara-hardash
Nazi-Bugash
Kurigalzu II
Nazi-Maruttash
Kadashman-Turgu
Kadashman-Enlil II
Kudur-Enlil
Shagarakti-Shuriash
Kashtiliashu IV
Enlil-nadin-shumi
Kadashman-Harbe II
Adad-shuma-iddina
Adad-shuma-usur
Meli-Shipak II
Marduk-apla-iddina I
Zababa-shuma-iddin
Enlil-nadin-ahi
Middle Elamite period
(1500–1100 BCE)
Kidinuid dynasty
Igehalkid dynasty
Untash-Napirisha
Thutmose I
Thutmose II
Hatshepsut ♀
Thutmose III
Amenhotep II
Thutmose IV
Amenhotep III
Akhenaten
Smenkhkare
Neferneferuaten ♀
Tutankhamun
Ay
Horemheb
Hittite Empire
Ugarit
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ramesses I
Seti I
Ramesses II
Merneptah
Amenmesses
Seti II
Siptah
Twosret ♀
Elamite Empire
Shutrukid dynasty
Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt
Setnakhte
Ramesses III
Ramesses IV
Ramesses V
Ramesses VI
Ramesses VII
Ramesses VIII
Ramesses IX
Ramesses X
Ramesses XI
Third Intermediate Period
Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt
Smendes
Amenemnisu
Psusennes I
Amenemope
Osorkon the Elder
Siamun
Psusennes II
Phoenicia
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon
Kingdom of Israel
Saul
Ish-bosheth
David
Solomon
Syro-Hittite states
Middle Assyria
Eriba-Adad I
Ashur-uballit I
Enlil-nirari
Arik-den-ili
Adad-nirari I
Shalmaneser I
Tukulti-Ninurta I
Ashur-nadin-apli
Ashur-nirari III
Enlil-kudurri-usur
Ninurta-apal-Ekur
Ashur-dan I
Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur
Mutakkil-Nusku
Ashur-resh-ishi I
Tiglath-Pileser I
Asharid-apal-Ekur
Ashur-bel-kala
Eriba-Adad II
Shamshi-Adad IV
Ashurnasirpal I
Shalmaneser II
Ashur-nirari IV
Ashur-rabi II
Ashur-resh-ishi II
Tiglath-Pileser II
Ashur-dan II
Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("
Second Dynasty of Isin ")
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu
Itti-Marduk-balatu
Ninurta-nadin-shumi
Nebuchadnezzar I
Enlil-nadin-apli
Marduk-nadin-ahhe
Marduk-shapik-zeri
Adad-apla-iddina
Marduk-ahhe-eriba
Marduk-zer-X
Nabu-shum-libur
Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE
Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")
Simbar-shipak
Ea-mukin-zeri
Kashshu-nadin-ahi
Eulmash-shakin-shumi
Ninurta-kudurri-usur I
Shirikti-shuqamuna
Mar-biti-apla-usur
Nabû-mukin-apli
911–745 BCE
Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt
Shoshenq I
Osorkon I
Shoshenq II
Takelot I
Osorkon II
Shoshenq III
Shoshenq IV
Pami
Shoshenq V
Pedubast II
Osorkon IV
Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt
Harsiese A
Takelot II
Pedubast I
Shoshenq VI
Osorkon III
Takelot III
Rudamun
Menkheperre Ini
Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Tefnakht
Bakenranef
Kingdom of Samaria
Kingdom of Judah
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Adad-nirari II
Tukulti-Ninurta II
Ashurnasirpal II
Shalmaneser III
Shamshi-Adad V
Shammuramat ♀ (regent)
Adad-nirari III
Shalmaneser IV
Ashur-Dan III
Ashur-nirari V
Ninth Babylonian Dynasty
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II
Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina
Shamash-mudammiq
Nabu-shuma-ukin I
Nabu-apla-iddina
Marduk-zakir-shumi I
Marduk-balassu-iqbi
Baba-aha-iddina (five kings)
Ninurta-apla-X
Marduk-bel-zeri
Marduk-apla-usur
Eriba-Marduk
Nabu-shuma-ishkun
Nabonassar
Nabu-nadin-zeri
Nabu-shuma-ukin II
Nabu-mukin-zeri
Humban-Tahrid dynasty
Urtak
Teumman
Ummanigash
Tammaritu I
Indabibi
Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Taharqa ("
Black Pharaohs ")
Piye
Shebitku
Shabaka
Taharqa
Tanutamun
Neo-Assyrian Empire
(
Sargonid dynasty )
Tiglath-Pileser †
Shalmaneser †
Marduk-apla-iddina II
Sargon †
Sennacherib †
Marduk-zakir-shumi II
Marduk-apla-iddina II
Bel-ibni
Ashur-nadin-shumi †
Nergal-ushezib
Mushezib-Marduk
Esarhaddon †
Ashurbanipal
Ashur-etil-ilani
Sinsharishkun
Sin-shumu-lishir
Ashur-uballit II
Assyrian conquest of Egypt
Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE
Late Period
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Necho I
Psamtik I
Necho II
Psamtik II
Wahibre
Ahmose II
Psamtik III
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Nabopolassar
Nebuchadnezzar II
Amel-Marduk
Neriglissar
Labashi-Marduk
Nabonidus
Median Empire
Deioces
Phraortes
Madyes
Cyaxares
Astyages
539–331 BCE
Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (
First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt )
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon
Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus
Cambyses
Darius I
Xerxes
Artaxerxes I
Darius II
Artaxerxes II
Artaxerxes III
Artaxerxes IV
Darius III
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE
Argead dynasty and
Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemy I Soter
Ptolemy Keraunos
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
Arsinoe II ♀
Ptolemy III Euergetes
Berenice II Euergetis ♀
Ptolemy IV Philopator
Arsinoe III Philopator ♀
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
Cleopatra I Syra ♀
Ptolemy VI Philometor
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
Cleopatra II Philometor Soter ♀
Ptolemy VIII Physcon
Cleopatra III ♀
Ptolemy IX Lathyros
Cleopatra IV ♀
Ptolemy X Alexander
Berenice III ♀
Ptolemy XI Alexander
Ptolemy XII Auletes
Cleopatra V ♀
Cleopatra VI Tryphaena ♀
Berenice IV Epiphanea ♀
Ptolemy XIII
Ptolemy XIV
Cleopatra VII Philopator ♀
Ptolemy XV Caesarion
Arsinoe IV ♀
Hellenistic Period
Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon
Argead dynasty :
Alexander III
Philip III
Alexander IV
Antigonid dynasty :
Antigonus I
Seleucid Empire :
Seleucus I
Antiochus I
Antiochus II
Seleucus II
Seleucus III
Antiochus III
Seleucus IV
Antiochus IV
Antiochus V
Demetrius I
Alexander III
Demetrius II
Antiochus VI Dionysus
Diodotus Tryphon
Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE
Kingdom of Judea
Simon Thassi
John Hyrcanus
Aristobulus I
Alexander Jannaeus
Salome Alexandra ♀
Hyrcanus II
Aristobulus II
Antigonus II Mattathias
Alexander II Zabinas
Seleucus V Philometor
Antiochus VIII Grypus
Antiochus IX Cyzicenus
Seleucus VI Epiphanes
Antiochus X Eusebes
Antiochus XI Epiphanes
Demetrius III Eucaerus
Philip I Philadelphus
Antiochus XII Dionysus
Antiochus XIII Asiaticus
Philip II Philoromaeus
Parthian Empire
Mithridates I
Phraates
Hyspaosines
Artabanus
Mithridates II
Gotarzes
Mithridates III
Orodes I
Sinatruces
Phraates III
Mithridates IV
Orodes II
Phraates IV
Tiridates II
Musa
Phraates V
Orodes III
Vonones I
Artabanus II
Tiridates III
Artabanus II
Vardanes I
Gotarzes II
Meherdates
Vonones II
Vologases I
Vardanes II
Pacorus II
Vologases II
Artabanus III
Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE
Roman Empire
(
Roman conquest of Egypt )
Province of Egypt
Judea
Syria
116–117 CE
Province of Mesopotamia under
Trajan
Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE
Syria Palaestina
Province of Mesopotamia
Sinatruces II
Mithridates V
Vologases IV
Osroes II
Vologases V
Vologases VI
Artabanus IV
224–270 CE
Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.
Ardashir I
Shapur I
Hormizd I
Bahram I
Bahram II
Bahram III
Narseh
Hormizd II
Adur Narseh
Shapur II
Ardashir II
Shapur III
Bahram IV
Yazdegerd I
Shapur IV
Khosrow
Bahram V
Yazdegerd II
Hormizd III
Peroz I
Balash
Kavad I
Jamasp
Kavad I
Khosrow I
Hormizd IV
Khosrow II
Bahram VI Chobin
Vistahm
270–273 CE
Palmyrene Empire
Vaballathus
Zenobia ♀
Antiochus
273–395 CE
Roman Empire
Province of Egypt
Syria Palaestina
Syria
Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE
Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Egypt
Palaestina Prima ,
Palaestina Secunda
Byzantine Syria
Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE
(
Sasanian conquest of Egypt )
Province of Egypt
Shahrbaraz
Sahralanyozan
Shahrbaraz
Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Khosrow II
Kavad II
628–641 CE
Byzantine Empire
Ardashir III
Shahrbaraz
Khosrow III
Boran ♀
Shapur-i Shahrvaraz
Azarmidokht ♀
Farrukh Hormizd
Hormizd VI
Khosrow IV
Boran
Yazdegerd III
Peroz III
Narsieh
Byzantine Egypt
Palaestina Prima ,
Palaestina Secunda
Byzantine Syria
Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE
Muslim conquest of Egypt
Muslim conquest of the Levant
Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period
Rulers of Ancient Central Asia