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A supertaster is a person whose sense of taste is of far greater intensity than the average person, having an elevated taste response. [1]

History

The term originated with experimental psychologist Linda Bartoshuk, who has spent much of her career studying genetic variation in taste perception. In the early 1980s, Bartoshuk and her colleagues found that some individuals tested in the laboratory seemed to have an elevated taste response and called them supertasters. [2]

This increased taste response is not the result of response bias or a scaling artifact but appears to have an anatomical or biological basis.

Phenylthiocarbamide

In 1931, Arthur L. Fox, a DuPont chemist, discovered that some people found phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) to be bitter while others found it tasteless. [3] [4] At the 1931 American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting, Fox collaborated with Albert F. Blakeslee, a geneticist, to have attendees taste PTC: 65% found it bitter, 28% found it tasteless, and 6% described other taste qualities. Subsequent work revealed that the ability to taste PTC is genetic.[ citation needed]

Propylthiouracil

In the 1960s, Roland Fischer was the first to link the ability to taste PTC, and the related compound propylthiouracil (PROP), to food preference, diets, and calorie intake. [5] Today, PROP has replaced PTC for research because of a faint sulfurous odor and safety concerns with PTC. [6] Bartoshuk and colleagues discovered that the taster group could be further divided into medium tasters and supertasters. [7] Research suggests 25% of the population are non-tasters, [8] 50% are medium tasters, and 25% are supertasters. [9]

Cause

The exact cause of heightened response to taste in humans has yet to be elucidated. A review found associations between supertasters and the presence of the TAS2R38 gene, the ability to taste PROP and PTC, and an increased number of fungiform papillae. [10]

In addition, environmental causes may play a role in sensitive taste. The exact mechanisms by which these causes may manifest, as well as possible evolutionary advantages to elevated taste sensitivity, are still unknown. [11] [12] In some environments, a heightened taste response, particularly to bitterness, would represent an important advantage in avoiding potentially toxic plant alkaloids. However, an increased response to bitterness may limit approach behavior for various palatable foods.

TAS2R38

The bitter-taste-receptor gene TAS2R38 has been associated with the ability to taste PROP [13] and PTC, [14] although a causal relationship with the supertaster phenomenon has not been established. [15] Additionally, the T2R38 genotype has been linked to a preference for sweetness in children, [16] avoidance of alcoholic beverages, [13] increased prevalence of colon cancer (because of inadequate vegetable consumption), [17] and avoidance of cigarette smoking. [18]

Prevalence

Women

Women are more likely to be supertasters, as are those from Asia, South America, and Africa. [8] Female supertasters tend to have a lower body mass index and better cardiovascular health. This could be because supertasters may not have a high predilection for sweet or high-fat foods compared to the average person. [19]

Identification

The tongue's fungiform papillae can be revealed with blue food dye.

Supertasters were initially identified based on the perceived intensity of propylthiouracil (PROP) compared to a reference salt solution. Supertasters consume more salt in comparison to those with average taste. [20] Subsequently, salt has been replaced with a non-oral gustatory standard. Therefore, if two individuals rate the same gustatory stimulus at a comparable perceptual intensity, but one gives a rating twice as large for the bitterness of a PROP solution, the experimenter can be confident the difference is real and not merely the result of how the person is using the scale.[ citation needed] Today, a phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) test strip is used to help determine if someone is a low taster. The general population tastes this as bitter about 75% of the time. [21]

Many studies do not include a cross-modal reference and categorize individuals based on the bitterness of a concentrated PROP solution [22] [23] or PROP-impregnated paper. [24] Supertasters tend to have more fungiform papillae and pain receptors than tasters and non-tasters. [25] It is also possible to make a reasonably accurate self-diagnosis at home by carefully examining the tongue and looking for the number of fungiform papillae. [26]

Specific food sensitivities

Although individual food preferences for supertasters cannot be typified, documented examples for either lessened preference or consumption include:

Other foods may also show altered patterns of preference and consumption, but only indirect evidence exists:

See also

References

  1. ^ Hayes JE, Keast RS (October 2011). "Two decades of supertasting: where do we stand?". Physiology & Behavior. 104 (5): 1072–1074. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.003. PMC  3183330. PMID  21851828.
  2. ^ Bartoshuk LM (1991). "Sweetness: history, preference, and genetic variability". Food Technology. 45 (11): 108–13. ISSN  0015-6639. INIST  5536670.
  3. ^ Fox AL (1931). "Six in ten 'tasteblind' to bitter chemical". The Science News-Letter. 9: 249.[ verification needed]
  4. ^ Bartoshuk LM (February 2000). "Psychophysical advances aid the study of genetic variation in taste". Appetite. 34 (1): 105. doi: 10.1006/appe.1999.0287. PMID  10744897. S2CID  30300307.
  5. ^ Tepper BJ, Banni S, Melis M, Crnjar R, Tomassini Barbarossa I (August 2014). "Genetic sensitivity to the bitter taste of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and its association with physiological mechanisms controlling body mass index (BMI)". Nutrients. 6 (9): 3363–3381. doi: 10.3390/nu6093363. PMC  4179166. PMID  25166026.
  6. ^ Texley J, Kwan T, Summers J (1 January 2004). Investigating Safely: A Guide for High School Teachers. NSTA Press. pp. 90–. ISBN  978-0-87355-202-8.
  7. ^ Di Lorenzo PM, Youngentob SL (15 April 2003). "Olfaction and Taste". Handbook of Psychology: 269–297. doi: 10.1002/0471264385.wei0310. ISBN  0471264385.
  8. ^ a b "BBC - Science & Nature - Human Body and Mind - Science of supertasters". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2023-05-10.
  9. ^ Roxby P (9 December 2012). "Why taste is all in the senses". BBC News Health.
  10. ^ Bartoshuk LM, Duffy VB, Miller IJ (December 1994). "PTC/PROP tasting: anatomy, psychophysics, and sex effects". Physiology & Behavior. 56 (6): 1165–1171. doi: 10.1016/0031-9384(94)90361-1. PMID  7878086. S2CID  40598794.
  11. ^ Navarro-Allende A, Khataan N, El-Sohemy A (16 September 2008). "Impact of genetic and environmental determinants of taste with food preferences in older adults". Journal of Nutrition for the Elderly. 27 (3–4): 267–276. doi: 10.1080/01639360802261920. PMID  19042575. S2CID  44506616.
  12. ^ "Myths of Human Genetics: PTC tasting". udel.edu.
  13. ^ a b Duffy VB, Davidson AC, Kidd JR, Kidd KK, Speed WC, Pakstis AJ, et al. (November 2004). "Bitter receptor gene (TAS2R38), 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) bitterness and alcohol intake". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 28 (11): 1629–1637. doi: 10.1097/01.ALC.0000145789.55183.D4. PMC  1397913. PMID  15547448.
  14. ^ Bufe B, Breslin PA, Kuhn C, Reed DR, Tharp CD, Slack JP, et al. (February 2005). "The molecular basis of individual differences in phenylthiocarbamide and propylthiouracil bitterness perception". Current Biology. 15 (4): 322–327. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.047. PMC  1400547. PMID  15723792.
  15. ^ Hayes JE, Bartoshuk LM, Kidd JR, Duffy VB (March 2008). "Supertasting and PROP bitterness depends on more than the TAS2R38 gene". Chemical Senses. 33 (3): 255–265. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjm084. PMID  18209019.
  16. ^ Mennella JA, Pepino MY, Reed DR (February 2005). "Genetic and environmental determinants of bitter perception and sweet preferences". Pediatrics. 115 (2): e216–e222. doi: 10.1542/peds.2004-1582. PMC  1397914. PMID  15687429.
  17. ^ Basson MD, Bartoshuk LM, Dichello SZ, Panzini L, Weiffenbach JM, Duffy VB (March 2005). "Association between 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) bitterness and colonic neoplasms". Digestive Diseases and Sciences. 50 (3): 483–489. doi: 10.1007/s10620-005-2462-7. PMID  15810630. S2CID  21099629.
  18. ^ Cannon DS, Baker TB, Piper ME, Scholand MB, Lawrence DL, Drayna DT, et al. (December 2005). "Associations between phenylthiocarbamide gene polymorphisms and cigarette smoking". Nicotine & Tobacco Research. 7 (6): 853–858. doi: 10.1080/14622200500330209. PMID  16298720.
  19. ^ a b Crosby G (2016-05-31). "Super-Tasters and Non-Tasters: Is it Better to Be Average?". The Nutrition Source. Harvard University. Retrieved 2020-06-04.
  20. ^ Knox R (16 June 2010). "For Supertasters, A Desire For Salt Is Genetic". NPR.org. Retrieved 2020-06-04.
  21. ^ "PTC The Genetics of Bitter Taste". learn.genetics.utah.edu.
  22. ^ Prescott J, Ripandelli N, Wakeling I (October 2001). "Binary taste mixture interactions in prop non-tasters, medium-tasters and super-tasters". Chemical Senses. 26 (8): 993–1003. doi: 10.1093/chemse/26.8.993. PMID  11595676.
  23. ^ a b Lanier SA, Hayes JE, Duffy VB (January 2005). "Sweet and bitter tastes of alcoholic beverages mediate alcohol intake in of-age undergraduates". Physiology & Behavior. 83 (5): 821–831. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.10.004. PMID  15639168. S2CID  40244872.
  24. ^ Sipiora ML, Murtaugh MA, Gregoire MB, Duffy VB (May 2000). "Bitter taste perception and severe vomiting in pregnancy". Physiology & Behavior. 69 (3): 259–267. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9384(00)00223-7. PMID  10869591. S2CID  26518676.
  25. ^ "Super-Tasters and Non-Tasters: Is it Better to Be Average?". The Nutrition Source. May 31, 2016. Retrieved 2020-06-04.
  26. ^ "Super-Tasting Science: Find Out If You're a "Supertaster"!". Science Buddies. Scientific American. December 27, 2012. Retrieved 2021-07-18.
  27. ^ a b c Drewnowski A, Henderson SA, Levine A, Hann C (December 1999). "Taste and food preferences as predictors of dietary practices in young women". Public Health Nutrition. 2 (4): 513–519. doi: 10.1017/S1368980099000695. PMID  10656470.
  28. ^ a b c d Drewnowski A, Henderson SA, Barratt-Fornell A (April 2001). "Genetic taste markers and food preferences". Drug Metabolism and Disposition. 29 (4 Pt 2): 535–538. PMID  11259346.
  29. ^ a b Dinehart ME, Hayes JE, Bartoshuk LM, Lanier SL, Duffy VB (February 2006). "Bitter taste markers explain variability in vegetable sweetness, bitterness, and intake". Physiology & Behavior. 87 (2): 304–313. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.10.018. PMID  16368118. S2CID  24387624.
  30. ^ Sandell MA, Breslin PA (September 2006). "Variability in a taste-receptor gene determines whether we taste toxins in food". Current Biology. 16 (18): R792–R794. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2006.08.049. PMID  16979544.
  31. ^ Swan N (7 January 1998). "Health Report – 22/12/1997: Super Tasters". ABC More. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2013-08-29.
  32. ^ Gardner A (16 June 2010). "Love Salt? You Might Be a "Supertaster"". Health.com. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 2014-12-09.

Further reading

External links

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