This article is about the political philosophy that reinterprets Marxism. For the study of formerly socialist states, see
postsocialism. For the economic and political transformations that occurred in certain countries as a result of the fall of their communist governments, see
post-communism.
Post-Marxism first originated in the late
1970s, and several trends and events of that period influenced its development.[38] The weakness of the
Soviet Union and
Eastern Bloc paradigm became evident after the so called "
Secret speech" and the following
invasion of Hungary, which split the radical left irreparably.[39] Marxism from then on faced a crisis of credibility, resulting in various developments in Marxist theory, particularly
neo-Marxism, which theorised against much of the Eastern Bloc.[40] This happened concurrently with the occurrence internationally of the
strikes and occupations of 1968, the rise of
Maoist theory, and the proliferation of
commercial television and later information technologies which covered in its broadcasts the
Vietnam War.
Post-Marxism, although with its roots in this
New Left and the consequent
post-structural moment in France,[41] has its real genesis in reaction to the hegemony of
neoliberalism, and defeat of the Left in such events as the UK
miners' strike. Ernesto Laclau argued that a Marxism for the neoliberal
conjuncture required a fundamental reworking, to address the failures of both.[42] Subsequently, Laclau and Mouffe address the proliferation of "new subject positions" by locating their analysis on a non-essentialist framework.
Simultaneously, revolutionaries in Italy, known as Operaismo, and later
autonomists,[43] began to theorise against the conservative
Italian Communist Party,[44] focusing much more on labour, gender and the later works of Marx. In France, radicals such as
Félix Guattari redefined old
Lacanian models of desire and subjectivity, which had often been tied to the communist project, bringing
Nietzsche into conversation with Marx.[45][46] In the
Eastern Bloc, the Budapest School[47] began reinterpreting Marx, building on the work of the
Praxis school before them.[48] In West Germany, theorists
reinterpreted Marx's works entirely from a Hegelian perspective.
Turning to the Atlantic, in the UK,
Stuart Hall[49] began to experiment with increasingly aggressive post-structuralist theorists in the build up to New Labour whilst working for Marxism Today, especially in relation to race and identity.[50]John Holloway began to forge a new path between Althusserian
structural Marxism and instrumentalist theorists of
monopoly capitalism. In the US,
Michael Hardt collaborated with
Antonio Negri to produce Empire at the turn of the century, widely recognised as a consolidation and re-affirmation of post-Marxism.[51]Harry Cleaver produced innovative readings of
Capital, alongside
Moishe Postone who reaffirmed Marx's central concepts.
Post-Marxism also has different connotations within
radical feminist theory. The way
Catharine MacKinnon uses the term post-Marxism is not based on post-structuralism. She says "feminism worthy of the name absorbs and moves beyond marxist methodology",[52] meaning that Marxism is not to be left behind but built on.
Currently, figures in the US, UK, and Europe continue to produce work in the post-Marxist tradition, particularly
Nancy Fraser,
Alain Badiou, Jeremy Gilbert and
Étienne Balibar. This theory is often very different from that produced by Laclau and Mouffe, and much of the Left has turned against the Post-Marxist turn.[53][54]
Despite being born in Latin America and the Eastern Bloc, post-Marxism is largely produced by theorists of the
Global North, as the following criticisms reveal. Aside from perhaps Spivak, there are no notable theorists of the Global South[55] who are within the post-Marxist tradition,[56] and the radical movements of the Global South largely remain within the 'Old Left' tradition.[57] Several reasons relating to political geography and level of academisation are given as explanations. There is some debate however as to whether
Cedric Robinson was a post-Marxist.[58]
Despite this, the
Zapatistas have been a large source of inspiration for many post-Marxists.[59]
Criticism
Post-Marxism has been criticised from both the left and the right wings of Marxism.[60] Nick Thoburn has criticised Laclau's Post-Marxism (and its relationship to
Eurocommunism) as essentially a rightward shift to
social democracy.[61]Ernest Mandel[62] and
Sivanandan[63][64] make this same point.
Richard Wolff also claims that Laclau's formulation of Post-Marxism is a step backwards.[65] Oliver Eagleton (son of
Terry Eagleton) claims that Mouffe's 'radical democracy' has an inherent
conservative nature.[66]
Other Marxist's have criticised
Autonomist Marxism or post-operaismo, a form of post-Marxism, of having a theoretically weak understanding of
value in capitalist economies.[67] It has also been by criticised by other Marxists for being
anti-humanist / anti-(Hegelian) dialectical.[68]
Post-Marxism as a term is also seen as being too imprecise, often used as an insult[73] or a
straw man. Besides Laclau and Mouffe, very few Marxists describe themselves as Post-Marxists, regardless of their own affinities with
post-structuralist theories or their reinterpretation of Marx.[74] There is also much disagreement between post-Marxists on fundamental questions of strategy and philosophy (Hegel or Spinoza, for example); some forward a
left-populism, others a complete rejection of
organised politics, and others a new Leninist vanguard.
^Callinicos, Alex (2022). Routledge Handbook of Marxism and Post-Marxism (1st ed.). Routledge.
^Arditi, Benjamin (September 2007). "Post-hegemony: politics outside the usual post-Marxist paradigm". Contemporary Politics. 13 (3): 205–226.
doi:
10.1080/13569770701467411.
S2CID154296914.
^Sim, Stuart (2022). Reflections on Post-Marxism: Laclau and Mouffe's Project of Radical Democracy in the 21st Century. Policy Press.
ISBN978-1-5292-2183-1.[page needed]
^Mclean, Ian; Mcmillan, Alistair (2003) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (Article: State). Oxford University Press.
^Ritzer, George; Schubert, J. Daniel (1991). "The Changing Nature of Neo-Marxist Theory: A Metatheoretical Analysis". Sociological Perspectives. 34 (3): 359–375.
doi:
10.2307/1389516.
JSTOR1389516.
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^McKenna, Tony (3 April 2014). "Against Post-Marxism: How Post-Marxism Annuls Class-Based Historicism and the Possibility of Revolutionary Praxis". International Critical Thought. 4 (2): 142–159.
doi:
10.1080/21598282.2014.906538.
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^Barrow, Clyde W. (1993). Critical Theories of the State: Marxist, Neomarxist, Postmarxist. Univ of Wisconsin Press.
ISBN978-0-299-13713-7.[page needed]
^Meyerson, Gregory; San Juan, E. Jr. (2009). "Post-Marxism as Compromise Formation". Cultural Logic: Journal of Marxist Theory & Practice. 16.
doi:
10.14288/clogic.v16i0.191554.
^Peters, Michael A (2022). "Poststructuralism and the Post-Marxist Critique of Knowledge Capitalism: A Personal Account". Review of Contemporary Philosophy. 21: 21–37.
doi:
10.22381/RCP2120222.
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^Harrison, Oliver (2016). Revolutionary Subjectivity in Post-Marxist Thought: Laclau, Negri, Badiou. Routledge.
ISBN978-1-317-06333-9.[page needed]
^Browning, Gary K. (June 2005). "A globalist ideology of post-Marxism? Hardt and Negri's Empire". Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy. 8 (2): 193–208.
doi:
10.1080/13698230500108876.
S2CID143556108.
Fisher, M. (2009). Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative? Winchester: Zero Books.
Galfarsoro, Imanol (2012). "(Post)Marxismoa, kultura eta eragiletasuna: Ibilbide historiko labur bat" [(Post) Marxism, Culture and Effectiveness: A Brief Historical Journey]. In Aizpuru, Alaitz (ed.). Euskal Herriko pentsamenduaren gida [A guide to thinking in the Basque Country] (in Basque). Bilbo: UEU.
ISBN978-84-8438-435-9.
Sim, Stuart (2002). Post-Marxism: An Intellectual History. Routledge studies in social and political thought. New York; London:
Routledge.
ISBN0-203-18616-8.
Thoburn, Nick (2003). Deleuze, Marx, and Politics. Routledge
Tormey, Simon; Townshend, Jules (2006). Key Thinkers from Critical Theory to Post-Marxism. Pine Forge Press.