Historically, a civilization has often been understood as a larger and "more advanced"
culture, in implied contrast to smaller, supposedly less advanced cultures. In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of
nomadic pastoralists,
Neolithic societies, or
hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves. Civilizations are organized densely-populated settlements divided into
hierarchicalsocial classes with a ruling elite and subordinate urban and rural populations, which engage in
intensive agriculture,
mining, small-scale manufacture and
trade. Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings. (Full article...)
The concept of the "middle power" dates back to the origins of the European state system. In the late 16th century, Italian political thinker
Giovanni Botero divided the world into three types of states: grandissime (great powers), mezano (middle powers), and piccioli (
small powers). According to Botero, a mezano or middle power "has sufficient strength and authority to stand on its own without the need of help from others." (Full article...)
A great power is a
sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and
soft power influence, which may cause
middle or
small powers to consider the great powers' opinions before taking actions of their own.
International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions.
While some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is considerable debate on the exact criteria of great power status. Historically, the status of great powers has been formally recognized in organizations such as the
Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 or the
United Nations Security Council, of which permanent members are: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The United Nations Security Council,
NATO Quint, the
G7, the
BRICs and the
Contact Group have all been described as great power concerts. (Full article...)
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A cradle of civilization is a location and a culture where
civilization was developed independent of other civilizations in other locations. The formation of urban settlements (cities) is the primary characteristic of a society that can be characterized as "civilized". Other characteristics of civilization include a sedentary non-nomadic population, monumental architecture, the existence of social classes and inequality, and the creation of a
writing system for communication. The transition from simpler societies to the complex society of a civilization is gradual.
Scholars generally acknowledge six cradles of civilization.
Mesopotamia,
Ancient Egypt,
Ancient India, and
Ancient China are believed to be the earliest in the
Old World, while the
Caral-Supe civilization of coastal
Peru and the
Olmec civilization of
Mexico are believed to be the earliest in the
New World. All of the cradles of civilization depended upon agriculture for sustenance (except possibly Caral-Supe which may have depended initially on
marine resources). All depended upon farmers producing an agricultural surplus to support the centralized government, political leaders, priests, and public works of the urban centers of the early civilizations. (Full article...)
The scale is
hypothetical, and refers to energy consumption on a
cosmic scale. Various extensions of the scale have since been proposed, including a wider range of power levels (Types 0, IV, and V) and the use of metrics other than pure power (e.g.,
computational growth or
food consumption). (Full article...)
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Superpower describes a
state or
supranational union that holds a dominant position characterized by the ability to exert
influence or
project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined means of economic, military, technological, political, and cultural strength as well as
diplomatic and
soft power influence. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the
great powers. While a great power state is capable of exerting its influence globally, superpowers are states so influential that no significant action can be taken by the global community without first considering the positions of the superpowers on the issue.
In 1944, during
World War II, the term was first applied to the
United States, the
British Empire, and the
Soviet Union. During the
Cold War, the British Empire dissolved, leaving the United States and the Soviet Union to dominate world affairs. At the end of the Cold War and the
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States became the world's sole superpower, a position sometimes referred to as that of a "hyperpower". Since the late
2010s and into the
2020s,
China has been described as an
emerging superpower or even an established one, like the United States, as China poses "the most significant challenge of any nation-state in the world to the United States". (Full article...)
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Ecological civilization is the
hypothetical concept that describes the alleged final goal of social and environmental reform within a given society. It implies that the changes required in response to global
climate disruption and social injustices are so extensive as to require another form of human civilization, one based on
ecological principles. (Full article...)
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The planetary phase of civilization is a term created by the
Global Scenario Group (GSG) to describe the contemporary era in which increasing global interdependence and risks are binding the world into a unitary
socio-ecological system. Characteristics of this phase include
economic globalization, biospheric destabilization, mass migration, new global institutions, the Internet, new forms of transboundary conflict, and shifts in culture and consciousness. (Full article...)
According to the theory, the East Semitic population migrated from what is now the Levant and spread into Mesopotamia, and the new population could have contributed to the collapse of the
Uruk period c. 3100 BC. This early East Semitic culture was characterized by linguistic, literary and orthographic similarities extending from Ebla in the west to Abu Salabikh in the East. The personal names from the Sumerian city of Kish showed an East Semitic nature and revealed that the city population had a strong Semitic component from the dawn of
recorded history, and since Gelb considered Kish to be the center of this civilization, hence the naming. (Full article...)
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A river valley civilization is an
agricultural nation or
civilization situated beside and drawing sustenance from a river. A river gives the inhabitants a reliable source of water for drinking and agriculture. Some other possible benefits for the inhabitants are fishing, fertile soil due to annual flooding, and ease of transportation. (Full article...)
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Late Postclassic Huastec temple at Castillo de Teayo
Surviving remains from the Huastec civilization include several large archaeological sites, a well-preserved temple, and a large amount of stone sculpture. By the
Late Postclassic (c. AD 1200–1521), the Huastecs had developed
metallurgy and were producing copper alloys. The
Aztec Empire conquered the Huastec region around the 15th century, and probably demanded tribute payments. (Full article...)
The civilizations of
Classical Greece (Hellenic) and
Roman Empire (Latin) as well as
Ancient Israel (Hebraism) and early
Christendom are considered seminal periods in Western history;. From Ancient Greece sprang belief in
democracy, and the pursuit of intellectual inquiry into such subjects as truth and beauty; from Rome came lessons in government administration, martial organization, engineering and law; and from Ancient Israel sprang
Christianity with its ideals of the brotherhood of humanity. Strong cultural contributions also emerged from the pagan
Germanic,
Celtic,
Wendic,
Finnic,
Baltic and
Nordic peoples of pre-Christian Europe. Following the 5th-century "
Fall of Rome", Europe entered the
Middle Ages, during which period the
Catholic Church filled the power vacuum left in the West by the fallen Roman Empire, while the
Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) endured for centuries. (Full article...)
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The Aztecs (/ˈæztɛks/AZ-teks) were a
Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central
Mexico in the
post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different
ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the
Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Aztec culture was organized into city-states (altepetl), some of which joined to form alliances, political confederations, or empires. The
Aztec Empire was a confederation of three city-states established in 1427:
Tenochtitlan, city-state of the
Mexica or Tenochca,
Texcoco, and
Tlacopan, previously part of the
Tepanec empire, whose dominant power was
Azcapotzalco. Although the term Aztecs is often narrowly restricted to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, it is also broadly used to refer to
Nahua polities or peoples of central
Mexico in the prehispanic era, as well as the
Spanish colonial era (1521–1821). The
definitions of Aztec and Aztecs have long been the topic of scholarly discussion ever since German scientist
Alexander von Humboldt established its common usage in the early 19th century.
Most ethnic groups of central Mexico in the
post-classic period shared essential cultural traits of Mesoamerica. So many of the characteristics that characterize Aztec culture cannot be said to be exclusive to the Aztecs. For the same reason, the notion of "Aztec civilization" is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. The culture of central Mexico includes
maize cultivation, the social division between nobility (pipiltin) and commoners (macehualtin), a
pantheon (featuring
Tezcatlipoca,
Tlaloc, and
Quetzalcoatl), and the
calendric system of a xiuhpohualli of 365 days intercalated with a tonalpohualli of 260 days. Particular to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan was the patron God
Huitzilopochtli,
twin pyramids, and the ceramic styles known as Aztec I to IV. (Full article...)
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Magan (also Majan) was an ancient region in what is now modern day
Oman and
United Arab Emirates. It was referred to in
Sumeriancuneiform texts of around 2300 BCE and existed until 550 BCE as a source of
copper and
diorite for
Mesopotamia. As discussed by The Archeology Fund founded by
Juris Zarins, "The Sumerian cities of southern Mesopotamia were closely linked to the Gulf. Archaeologists and historians have linked sites in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Qatar to the Sumerian geographical term of Dilmun. Oman, was most likely the Sumerian Magan". (Full article...)
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Economy is conventionally defined as a function for production and distribution of goods and services by multiple agents within a
society and/or geographical place An economy is hierarchical, made up of individuals that aggregate to make larger organizations such as governments and gives value to goods and services. The
Maya economy had no universal form of trade exchange other than resources and services that could be provided among groups such as cacao beans and copper bells. Though there is limited archeological evidence to study the trade of perishable goods, it is noteworthy to explore the trade networks of
artifacts and other luxury items that were likely transported together.
While subsistence agriculture played a central role in daily life, the Maya had a mechanism for economic exchange between settlements, which was capable of supporting specialists and a system of merchants through trade routes. Maya specialist Joanne Pillsbury states that "access to imported goods is perhaps the most recoverable aspect of prestige and leadership in ancient states." The power of Maya rulers not only depended on their ability to control resources, but also in managing the production and distribution of status goods as well as (non-local) commodities like salt. Furthermore, Maya laborers were subject to a labor
tax to build palaces, temples and public works. A ruler successful in war was able to control more laborers and exact tribute on defeated enemies, further increasing their economic might. (Full article...)
The extensive
trade networks of the
Ancient Maya contributed largely to the success of their civilization spanning three millennia. Maya royal control and the wide distribution of foreign and domestic commodities for both population sustenance and social affluence are hallmarks of the Maya visible throughout much of the iconography found in the archaeological record. In particular, moderately long-distance trade of foreign commodities from the Caribbean and Gulf Coasts provided the larger inland Maya cities with the resources they needed to sustain settled population levels in the several thousands. Though the
ruling class essentially controlled the trade economy, a middle merchant class supervised import and export from cities and trade ports. Not much is known of the Maya merchant class; however, merchants of royal lineage are sometimes represented in the iconography. Notably, a canoe paddle often accompanies the royal merchant depictions, signifying their association with marine resources.
Water lilies are also a recognizable feature of Maya iconography, appearing on ceramics and murals in landlocked cities like
Palenque where the lilies cannot grow, further indicating the important political symbolism of water connections. The dugout style canoes of the Maya and other small watercraft are also represented in various
codices, sometimes ferrying royal figures or deities. The rich tradition of maritime trade has continued into the modern era, exemplified by the resource exploitation of the coastal lagoons and cay locations along the Caribbean coast of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras. Eventually, the intensification of maritime trade reliance aided in the collapse of interior Maya power regimes, shifting political influence to coastal polities such as
Uxmal and
Chichen Itza in the Terminal Classic. A seaborne trade economy would continue to dominate the Maya civilization until the period of European contact. (Full article...)
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Western culture, also known as Western civilization, European civilization, Occidental culture, or Western society, is an umbrella term which refers to the diverse
heritages of
social norms,
ethical values,
traditional customs,
belief systems,
political systems,
artifacts and
technologies of the
Western world. The core of Western civilization, broadly defined, is formed by the combined foundations of
Greco-Roman civilization and
Western Christianity. Western culture also comprises and has been influenced by other elements, such as
Germanic and
Celtic cultures. While Western culture is a broad concept, and does not relate to a region with fixed members or geographical confines, it generally relates to the cultures of countries with historical ties to a European country or a number of European countries, or to the variety of cultures within Europe itself. However, countries toward the east of Europe are sometimes excluded from definitions of the Western world.
The Andean civilizations were South American
complex societies of many
indigenous people. They stretched down the spine of the
Andes for 4,000 km (2,500 mi) from southern
Colombia, to
Ecuador and
Peru, including the deserts of coastal Peru, to north
Chile and northwest
Argentina. Archaeologists believe that Andean
civilizations first developed on the narrow coastal plain of the
Pacific Ocean. The
Caral or Norte Chico civilization of coastal Peru is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, dating back to 3500 BCE. Andean civilization is one of the six "pristine" civilizations of the world, created independently and without influence by other civilizations.
Despite the severe environmental challenges of high mountains and hyper-arid desert, the Andean civilizations domesticated a wide variety of crops, some of which, such as
potatoes,
peppers,
peanuts,
manioc,
chocolate, and
coca, became of worldwide importance. The Andean civilizations were noteworthy for monumental architecture, an extensive
road system, textile weaving, and many unique characteristics of the societies they created. (Full article...)
Chief staples of Maya economic activities were centered primarily around foods like
fish,
squash,
yams,
corn,
honey,
beans,
turkey,
vegetables,
salt,
chocolate drinks; raw materials such as limestone, marble, jade, wood, copper, and gold; and manufactured goods such as paper, books, furniture, jewelry, clothing, carvings, toys, weapons, and luxury goods. The Maya also had an important service sector, through which mathematicians, farming consultants, artisans, architects, astronomers, scribes and artists would sell their services. Some of the richer merchants sold weapons, gold and other valuable items. (Full article...)
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Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities.
On the origins of the Etruscans a large body of literature has flourished; however, the consensus among modern scholars is that the Etruscans were an indigenous population. The earliest evidence of a
culture that is identifiably Etruscan dates from about 900BC. This is the period of the
Iron AgeVillanovan culture, considered to be the earliest phase of Etruscan civilization, which itself developed from the previous late
Bronze AgeProto-Villanovan culture in the same region, part of the central European
Urnfield culture system. Etruscan civilization dominated Italy until it fell to the expanding
Rome beginning in the late 4thcenturyBC as a result of the
Roman–Etruscan Wars; Etruscans were granted
Roman citizenship in 90 BC, and only in 27 BC the whole Etruscan territory was incorporated into the newly established
Roman Empire. (Full article...)
Ancient Rome began as an
Italic settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the
River Tiber in the
Italian Peninsula. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually controlled the Italian Peninsula, assimilated the
Greek culture of southern
Italy (
Magna Grecia) and the
Etruscan culture, becoming a dominant power in the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. It was among the
largest empires in the ancient world, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time. It covered around 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) at its height in AD 117. (Full article...)
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Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)