The largest prehistoric animals include both
vertebrate and
invertebrate species. Many of them are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of the
fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no complete specimen have been found. Their body mass, especially, is largely conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct species was subject to energetic[1] and biomechanical constraints.[2]
The herbivorous Alierasaurus was the largest
caseid and the largest
amniote to have lived at the time, with an estimated length around 6–7 m (20–23 ft).[3]Cotylorhynchus hancocki is also large, with an estimated length and weight of at least 6 m (20 ft)[4] and more than 500 kg (1,100 lb).[5]
The biggest carnivorous synapsid of
Early Permian was Dimetrodon, which could reach 4.6 m (15 ft) and 250 kg (550 lb).[8] The largest members of the genus Dimetrodon were also the world's first fully terrestrial
apex predators.[9]
The plant-eating
dicynodontLisowicia bojani is the largest-known of all non-mammalian
synapsids, at about 4.5 m (15 ft) long, 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) tall, and 9,000 kg (20,000 lb) in body mass.[11][12][13]
Dinocephalians (Dinocephalia)
Among the largest carnivorous non-mammalian synapsids was the
dinocephalianAnteosaurus, which was 5–6 m (16–20 ft) long, and weighed 500–600 kg (1,100–1,300 lb).[14][15] Fully grown Titanophoneus from the same family
Anteosauridae likely had a skull of 1 m (3.3 ft) long.[15] Another enormous dinocephalian was the
Late PermianEotitanosuchus (a possible synonym to Biarmosuchus[16]). Adult specimens could reach 6 m (20 ft) in length and over 600 kg (1,300 lb) in weight.[16]
Gorgonopsians (Gorgonopsia)
Inostrancevia latifrons is the largest known
gorgonopsian, with a skull length of more than 60 cm (24 in), a total length approaching 3.5 m (11 ft) and a mass of 300 kg (660 lb).[17]Rubidgea atrox is the largest African gorgonopsian, with skull of nearly 45 cm (18 in) long.[18] Other large gorgonopsians include Dinogorgon with skull of ~40 cm (16 in) long,[19]Leontosaurus with skull of almost 40 cm (16 in) long,[18] and Sycosaurus with skull of ~38 cm (15 in) long.[18]
The largest known non-mammalian
cynodont is Scalenodontoides, a
traversodontid, which had a maximum skull length of approximately 61.7 centimetres (24.3 in) based on a fragmentary specimen.[23]
Paceyodon davidi was the largest of
morganucodontans, cynodonts close to mammals. It is known by a right lower molariform 3.3 mm (0.13 in) in length, which is bigger than molariforms of all other morganucodontans.[24]
The largest
gobiconodont and the largest well-known
Mesozoic mammal was Repenomamus.[26][27][28][29][30][31] The known adult of Repenomamus giganticus reached a total length of around 1 m (3 ft 3 in) and an estimated mass of 12–14 kg (26–31 lb).[28] With such parameters it surpassed in size several small
theropod dinosaurs of the
Early Cretaceous.[32]Gobiconodon was also a large mammal,[30][31] it weighed 5.4 kilograms (12 lb),[28] had a skull of 10 cm (3.9 in) in length, and had 35 cm (14 in) in presacral body length.[33]
The largest known
monotreme (egg-laying mammal) ever was the extinct
long-beaked echidna species known as Murrayglossus, known from a couple of bones found in Western Australia. It was the size of a sheep, weighing probably up to 30 kg (66 lb).[36]
Stagodontid mammal Didelphodon was one of the largest
Mesozoic metatherians and all
Cretaceous mammals.[44] Its skull could reach over 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in length[45] and a weight of complete animal was 5.2 kilograms (11 lb).[46]
Marsupials (Marsupialia)
The largest known
marsupial, and the largest
metatherian, is the extinct Diprotodon, about 3 m (9.8 ft) long, standing 2 m (6 ft 7 in) tall and weighing up to 2,786 kg (6,142 lb).[47] Fellow
vombatiformPalorchestes azael was similar in length being around 2.5 m (8.2 ft), with body mass estimates indicating it could exceed 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).[48]
The largest known carnivorous marsupial was Thylacoleo carnifex. Measurements taken from a number of specimens show they averaged 101 to 164 kg (223 to 362 lb) in weight.[49][50]
The largest known
kangaroo was an as yet unnamed species of Macropus, estimated to weigh 274 kg (604 lb),[51] larger than the largest known specimen of Procoptodon, which could grow up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) and weigh 230 kg (510 lb).[52] Some species from the genus Sthenurus were similar in size or a bit larger than the extant
grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus).[53]
The largest
potoroid ever recorded was Borungaboodie, which was nearly 30% bigger than the largest living species and weighted up to 10 kg (22 lb).[54]
Non-placental eutherians
Cimolestans (Cimolesta)
The largest known
cimolestan is Coryphodon, 1 m (3 ft 3 in) high at the shoulder, 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) long[55][56] and up to 700 kg (1,500 lb) of mass.[57]Barylambda was also a huge mammal, at 650 kg (1,430 lb).[58]Wortmania and Psittacotherium from the group
Taeniodonta were among the largest mammals of the Early
Paleocene.[59] Lived as soon as half a million years after
K–Pg boundary, Wortmania reached 20 kg (44 lb) in body mass. Psittacotherium, which appeared two million years later, reached 50 kg (110 lb).[59]
Leptictids (Leptictida)
The largest
leptictid ever discovered is Leptictidium tobieni from the
Middle Eocene of
Germany. It had a skull 101 mm (4.0 in) long, head with trunk 375 mm (14.8 in) long, and tail 500 mm (20 in) long.[60] Close European relatives from the same family
Pseudorhyncocyonidae had skulls of 67–101 mm (2.6–4.0 in) in length.[60]
Tenrecs and allies (Afroscida)
The larger of the two species of
bibymalagasy (Plesiorycteropus madagascariensis), extinct
tenrec relatives from
Madagascar, is estimated to have weighed from 10 to 18 kilograms (21 to 40 lb).[61]
Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)
The largest known land-dwelling
artiodactyl was Hippopotamus gorgops with a length of 4.3 m (14 ft), a height of 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in), and a weight of 5 t (11,000 lb).[62]
The largest of
Bovinae as well as the largest
bovid was Bison latifrons. It reached a weight from 1,250 kg (2,760 lb)[68][69] to 2,000 kg (4,400 lb),[70] 4.75 m (15.6 ft) in length, shoulder height of 2.31 m (7.6 ft),[71] and had horns that spanned 2.13 m (7 ft 0 in).[72] The North American Bison antiquus reached up to 4.6 m (15 ft) long, 2.27 m (7.4 ft) tall, weight of 1,588 kg (3,501 lb),[73] and horn span of 1 m (3.3 ft).[71] The African Pelorovis reached 2 t (2.2 short tons) in weight and had bony cores of the horns about 1 m (3 ft 3 in) long.[74] Another enormous bovid, the
african giant buffalo (Syncerus antiquus) reached 3 m (9.8 ft) in length from muzzle to the end of the tail, 1.85 m (6.1 ft) in height at the
withers, 1.7 m (5.6 ft) in height at the hindquarters,[75][76] and the distance between the tips of its horns was as large as 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in).[75] Aside from local populations and subspecies of extant species, such as the gaur population in Sri Lanka, European bison in British Isles,
Caucasian wisent and
Carpathian wisent, the largest modern extinct bovid is
aurochs (Bos primigenius) with an average height at the shoulders of 155–180 cm (61–71 in) in bulls and 135–155 cm (53–61 in) in cows, while aurochs populations in Hungary had bulls reaching 155–160 cm (61–63 in).[77] The
kouprey (Bos sauveli), reaching 1.7–1.9 m (5 ft 7 in – 6 ft 3 in) in shoulder height,[78][79] has existed since the
Middle Pleistocene[80] and is also considered to be possibly extinct.[81][82]
The long-legged Megalotragus is possibly the largest known
alcelaphine bovid,[83] bigger than the extant
wildebeest.[84] The tips of horns of M. priscus were located at a distance of about 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) from each other.[85]
The extinct
cervidIrish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) reached over 2.1 m (7 ft) in height, 680 kg (1,500 lb) in mass and could have antlers spanning up to 4.3 m (14 ft) across, about twice the maximum span for a moose's antlers.[86][87] The
giant moose (Cervalces latifrons) reached 2.1 to 2.4 m (6.9 to 7.9 ft) high[88] and was twice as heavy as the Irish elk but its antler span at 2.5 m (8.2 ft) was smaller than that of Megaloceros.[89][90] North American
stag-moose (Cervalces scotti) reached 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in length and a weight of 708.5 kilograms (1,562 lb).[91][92]
The largest known
giraffid, aside from the extant giraffe, is Sivatherium, with a body weight of 1,250 kg (2,760 lb).[93]
The largest known wild
suid to ever exist was Kubanochoerus gigas, having measured up to 500 kg (1,100 lb) and stood around 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tall at the shoulder.[96]Megalochoerus could be similar in size, possibly weighing 303 kg (668 lb) or 526 kg (1,160 lb).[97]
The largest
tayassuid extinct Platygonus species were similar in size to modern peccaries especially
giant peccary, at around 1 m (3.3 ft) in body length, and had long legs, allowing them to run well. They also had a
pig-like snout and long
tusks which were probably used to fend off predators.[98]
The largest
camelid was Titanotylopus from the
Miocene of North America. It possibly reached 2,485.6 kg (5,480 lb) and a shoulder height of over 3.4 m (11 ft).[99][100] The
Syrian camel (Camelus moreli) was twice as big as the modern camels.[101] It was 3 m (9.8 ft) at the shoulder[102] and 4 m (13 ft) tall.[101]Camelops had legs to be 20% longer than that of
Dromedary, and was about 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in) tall at the shoulder and weighed about 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).[103]
The heaviest
archeocete, and possibly the heaviest known mammal was Perucetus, with weight estimated at around 85–340 t (84–335 long tons; 94–375 short tons), while length is estimated at 17.0–20.1 meters (55.8–65.9 ft).[104] The longest of known Eocene archeocete whales was Basilosaurus at 17–20 m (56–66 ft) in length.[105][106][107]
Some
Neogenerorquals were comparable in size to modern huge relatives. Parabalaenoptera was estimated to be about the size of the modern
gray whale,[109] about 16 m (52 ft) long. Some balaenopterids perhaps rivaled the
blue whale in terms of size,[109] though other studies disagree that any baleen whale grew that large in the
Miocene.[110]
Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)
The largest known
perissodactyl, and the second largest land mammal (see Palaeoloxodon namadicus) of all time was the hornless rhino Paraceratherium. The largest individual known was estimated at 4.8 m (15.7 ft) tall at the shoulders, 7.4 m (24.3 ft) in length from nose to rump, and 17 t (18.7 short tons) in weight.[111][112]
Some prehistoric horned
rhinos also grew to large sizes. The biggest Elasmotherium reached up to 5–5.2 m (16–17 ft) long,[113] 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) high[114] and weighed 3.5–5 t (3.9–5.5 short tons).[115][113][114] Such parameters make it the largest rhino of the
Quaternary.[115]Woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) of the same time reached 1,100–1,500 kg (2,400–3,300 lb)[116] or 2,000 kg (4,400 lb),[117][118] 1.93 m (6 ft 4 in) at the shoulder height and 4.6 m (15 ft) in length.[119]
Metamynodon, an
amynodontid, reached 4 m (13 ft) in length, comparable to Hippopotamus in measurement and shape.[120]
The
giant tapir (Tapirus augustus) was the largest tapir ever, at about 623 kg (1,373 lb)[121] and 1 m (3.3 ft) tall at the shoulders.[122] Earlier, this mammal was estimated even bigger, at 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall, and assigned to the separate genus Megatapirus.[122]
Late Eocene perissodactyls from the family
Brontotheriidae attained huge sizes. The North American Megacerops (also known as Brontotherium[125]) reached 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) tall at the shoulders,[126] 5 m (16 ft) in length,[125] and 3 t (6,600 lb) in weight.[127]Embolotherium from Asia was equal in size.[128]
The largest prehistoric horse was Equus giganteus of North America. It was estimated to grow to more than 1,250 kg (1.38 short tons) and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at the shoulders.[129] The largest
anchitherine equid was Hypohippus at 403 to 600 kg (888 to 1,323 lb), comparable to large modern
domestic horses.[130][131]Megahippus is another large anchitheriine. With the body mass of 266.2 kg (587 lb) it was much heavier than most of its close relatives.[130]
The largest known
dinoceratan was Eobasileus with skull length of 102 cm (40 in), 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) tall at the back and 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulder.[134] Another huge animal of this group was Uintatherium, with skull length of 76 cm (30 in), 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulder,[134] 4 m (13 ft) in length and 2.25 t (2.48 short tons), the size of a
rhinoceros.[135] Despite their large size, Eobasileus as well as Uintatherium had a very small brain.[134][135]
Carnivores (Carnivora)
Caniformia
The largest terrestrial mammalian
carnivore and the largest known
bear, as well as the largest known mammalian land predator of all time, was Arctotherium angustidens, the South American short-faced bear. A
humerus of A. angustidens from
Buenos Aires indicates that the males of the species could have weighed 1,588–1,749 kg (3,501–3,856 lb) and stood at least 3.4 m (11 ft) tall on their hind-limbs.[136][137] Another huge bear was the giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus), with the average weight of 625 kg (1,378 lb) and the maximum estimated at 957 kg (2,110 lb).[138] There is a guess that the largest individuals of this species could reached even larger mass, up to 1,200 kg (2,600 lb).[139] The extinct
cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) was also heavier than many recent bears. Largest males weighed as much as 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).[140]Ailuropoda baconi from the Pleistocene was larger than the modern
giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca).[141]
The biggest
odobenid and one of the biggest
pinnipeds to have ever existed is Pontolis magnus, with a skull length of 60 cm (24 in) (twice as large as the skulls of modern male
walruses)[142] and having a total body length of more than 4 m (13 ft).[143][144] Only the modern male
elephant seals (Mirounga) reach similar sizes.[143] The second largest prehistoric pinniped is Gomphotaria pugnax with a skull length of nearly 47 cm (19 in).[142]
One of the largest of prehistoric
otariids is Thalassoleon, comparable in size to the biggest extant
fur seals. An estimated weight of T. mexicanus is no less than 295–318 kg (650–701 lb).[145]
The biggest known
mustelid to ever exist was likely the giant otter, Enhydriodon. It exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, and would have weighed in at around 200 kg (440 lb), much larger than any other known mustelid, living or extinct.[146][147][148] There were other giant otters, like Siamogale, at around 50 kg (110 lb)[149] and Megalenhydris, which was larger than a modern-day giant river otter.[150]Megalictis was the largest purely terrestrial mustelid[151] (although Enhydriodon had recently been mentioned as the largest mustelid that also happens to be a terrestrial predator[146]). Similar in size to the
jaguar, Megalictis ferox had even wider skull, almost as wide as of the
black bear.[151]Megalictis had a powerful bite force, allowing it to eat large prey and crush bones, as modern hyenas and jaguars can.[151] Another large-bodied mustelid was the superficially cat-like Ekorus from the
Miocene of Africa. At almost 44 kg (97 lb), the long-legged Ekorus was about the size of a
wolf[152] and filling a similar to
leopards ecological niche before big cats came to the continent.[153] Other huge mustelids include Perunium[154] and
hypercarnivorousEomellivora, both from the
Late Miocene.[155]
The heaviest
procyonid was possibly South American Chapalmalania. It reached 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in body length with a short tail and 150 kilograms (330 lb), comparable in size to an
American black bear (Ursus americanus).[156] Another huge procyonid was Cyonasua, which weighted about 15–25 kg (33–55 lb), about the same size as a medium-sized dog.[157]
The largest
canid of all time was Epicyon haydeni, which stood 90 cm (35 in) tall at the shoulder, had a body length of 2.4 m (7.9 ft) and weighed 100–125 kg (220–276 lb),[158][159][160] with the heaviest known specimen weighing up to 170 kg (370 lb).[41] The extinct
dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus) reached 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) in length and weighed between 50 and 110 kg (110 and 243 lb).[41][161] The largest
wolf (Canis lupus) subspecies ever existed in Europe is the Canis lupus maximus from the
Late Pleistocene of
France. Its long bones are 10% larger than those of extant
European wolves and 20% longer than those of C. l. lunellensis.[162] The Late Pleistocene
Italian wolf was morphometrically close to C. l. maximus.[163]
The largest
bear-dog was a species of Pseudocyon weighing around 773 kg (1,704 lb), representing a very large individual.[164]
Feliformia
The largest
nimravid was probably Quercylurus major as its fossils suggest it was similar in size to the modern-day
brown bear and was
scansorial.[165] In 2021, Eusmilus was declared as the largest of the holplophonine nimravids, reaching the weight of nearly 111 kg (245 lb), comparable to a small African lion.[166] However, the largest Hoplophoneus was estimated at 160 kg (350 lb).[41]
The biggest
saber-toothed cats are Amphimachairodus kabir and Smilodon populator, with the males possibly reaching 350–490 kg (770–1,080 lb) and 220–450 kg (490–990 lb) respectively.[41][167][168] Another contender for the largest
felid of all time is Machairodus. M. horribilis from China was estimated at 405 kg (893 lb)[169] while the North American M. lahayishupup weighed up to 410 kg (900 lb).[170][171][172]Xenosmilus was also a huge cat. It reached around 2 m (6.6 ft) long[173] and weighed around 300–350 kg (660–770 lb).[169]
The largest known fossil
hyena is Pachycrocuta, estimated at 90–100 cm (35–39 in) at the shoulder[182] and 190 kg (420 lb) weight.[41] Another huge hyena with mass over 100 kg (220 lb) is the
cave hyena. It is actually a subspecies of the African
spotted hyena, which is at 10% smaller than the extinct cave hyena.[183]
The
percrocutid feliform, Dinocrocuta, was two or even three times as large as the extant spotted hyena, 160 or 240 kg (350 or 530 lb).[184]
The extinct
giant fossa (Cryptoprocta spelea) had a body mass in range from 17 kg (37 lb)[185] to 20 kg (44 lb),[186] much larger than the modern
fossa weighs (up to 8.6 kg (19 lb) for adult males[187]).
Found in Quaternary deposits of South and Central Americas, Desmodus draculae had a wingspan of 0.5 m (20 in) and a body mass of up to 60 g (2.1 oz). Such proportions make it the largest
vampire bat that ever evolved.[193]
Hedgehogs, gymnures, shrews, and moles (Eulipotyphla)
The largest known animal of the group
Eulipotyphla was Deinogalerix,[194] measuring up to 60 cm (24 in) in total length, with a skull up to 21 cm (8.3 in) long.[195]
Rodents (Rodentia)
Several of the extinct South American
dinomyids were much bigger than the modern rodents. Josephoartigasia monesi was the largest-known
rodent of all time, approximately weighing an estimated 480–500 kg (1,060–1,100 lb).[196]Phoberomys pattersoni weighed 125–150 kg (276–331 lb).[196] Both Josephoartigasia and Phoberomys reached about 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulder.[197] Another huge dinomyid, Telicomys gigantissimus had a minimal weight of 200 kg (440 lb).[197]
The largest beaver was the
giant beaver (Castoroides) of North America. It grew over 2 m in length and weighed roughly 90 to 125 kg (198 to 276 lb), also making it one of the largest rodents to ever exist.[199]
The largest old world porcupine are the Hystrix refossa was larger than living porcupines. It was approximately 20% larger than its closest relative, the living
Indian porcupine (H. indica), reaching lengths of over 115 cm (45 in).
The largest known
primate as well as the largest
hominid of all time was Gigantopithecus blackii, standing 3 m (9.8 ft) tall and weighing 540 kg (1,200 lb).[203][204] However In 2017, new studies suggested a body mass of 200–300 kg (440–660 lb) for this primate.[205] Another giant hominid was Meganthropus palaeojavanicus at 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) in body height,[206] although it is known from very poor remains.[207]
During the
Pleistocene, some
archaic humans were close in sizes or even larger than
early modern humans.
Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) reached 77.6 kg (171 lb) and 66.4 kg (146 lb) in average weight for males and females, respectively, larger than the parameters of modern humans (Homo sapiens) (68.5 kg (151 lb) and 59.2 kg (131 lb) for males and females, respectively).[208] A
tibia from
Kabwe (
Zambia) indicates an indeterminate Homo individual of possibly 181.2 cm (71.3 in) in height. It was one of the tallest humans of the
Middle Pleistocene and noticeably large even compared to recent humans.[209] The tallest Homo sapiens individuals from the Middle Pleistocene of
Spain reached 194 cm (76 in) and 174 cm (69 in) for males and females, respectively.[209] Some Homo erectus could be as large as 185 cm (73 in) tall and 68 kg (150 lb) in weight.[210][211]
The largest known
Old World monkey is the prehistoric baboon, with a male specimen of Dinopithecus projected to weigh an average of 46 kg (101 lb) and up to 57 kg (126 lb).[212] It exceeds the maximum weight record of the
chacma baboon, the largest extant baboon. One source projects a specimen of Theropithecus oswaldi to have weighed 72 kg (159 lb).[213]
Some prehistoric
lemuriform primates grew to huge sizes as well. Archaeoindris was a 1.5-metre-long (4.9 ft)
sloth lemur that lived in
Madagascar and weighed 150–187.8 kg (331–414 lb),[216] as large as an adult male
gorilla.[217]Palaeopropithecus from the same family was also heavier than most modern
lemurs, at 25.8–45.8 kg (57–101 lb).[218]Megaladapis is another large extinct lemur at 1.3 to 1.5 m (4 ft 3 in to 4 ft 11 in) in length[citation needed] and an average body mass of around 140 kg (310 lb).[219] Other estimates suggest 46.5–85.1 kg (103–188 lb) but its still much larger than any extant lemur.[218]
Elephants, mammoths, and mastodons (Proboscidea)
The largest known land mammal ever was a
proboscidean called Palaeoloxodon namadicus which weighed about 22 t (24.3 short tons) and measured about 5.2 m (17.1 ft) tall at the shoulder.[111] The largest individuals of the
steppe mammoth of
Eurasia (Mammuthus trogontherii) estimated to reach 4.5 m (14.8 ft) at the shoulders and 14.3 t (15.8 short tons) in weight.[111][220]Stegodon zdanskyi, the biggest species of Stegodon, was 13 t (14.3 short tons) in body mass.[111] Another one enormous proboscidean is Stegotetrabelodon syrticus, over 4 m (13 ft) in height and 11 to 12 t (12.1 to 13.2 short tons) in weight.[111] The
Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) was about 4 m (13.1 ft) tall at the shoulder but didn't weigh as much as other huge mammoths. Its average mass was 9.5 t (10.5 short tons) with one unusually large specimen about 12.5 t (13.8 short tons).[111] Columbian mammoths had very long tusks. The largest known mammoth tusk, 4.9 m (16 ft) long, belonged to this species.[221]
The largest
mammutid was the Neogene Mammut borsoni. The biggest specimen reached 4.1 m (13 ft) tall and weighed about 16 t (17.6 short tons).[111] This species also had the longest tusks, 5.02 m (16.5 ft) long from basis to tip along the curve.[222]
Deinotherium was the largest proboscidean in
Deinotheriidae family. Bones retrieved in
Crete confirm the existence of specimen 4.1 m (13 ft) tall at the shoulders and more than 14 t (15.4 short tons) in weight.[111]
Sea cows (Sirenia)
According to reports,
Steller's sea cows have grown to 8 to 9 m (26 to 30 ft) long as adults, much larger than any
extantsirenians.[223] The weight of Steller's sea cows is estimated to be 8–10 t (8.8–11.0 short tons).[224]
Arsinoitheres (Arsinoitheriidae)
The largest known
arsinoitheriid was Arsinoitherium. A. zitteli would have been 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in) tall at the shoulders, and 3 m (9.8 ft) long.[225][226]A. giganteum reached even larger size than A. zitteli.[227]
Hyraxes (Hyracoidea)
Some of the prehistoric
hyraxes were extremely large compared to modern small relatives. The largest hyracoid ever evolved is Titanohyrax ultimus.[228] With the mass estimation in rage of 600 kg (1,300 lb) to over 1,300 kg (2,900 lb) it was close in size to
Sumatran rhinoceros.[229] Another enormous hyrax is Megalohyrax which had skull of 391 mm (15.4 in) in length[230] and reached the size of tapir.[231][228] More recent Gigantohyrax was three times as large as the extant relative Procavia capensis,[232] although it is noticeably smaller than earlier Megalohyrax and Titanohyrax.[233]
Paleoparadoxia is also known as one of the largest desmostylians, with body length of 3.03 m (9.9 ft).[235]
Armadillos, glyptodonts and pampatheres (Cingulata)
The largest
cingulate known is Doedicurus, at 4 m (13 ft) long, 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) high[135] and reaching a mass of approximately 1,910 to 2,370 kg (2.11 to 2.61 short tons).[citation needed] The largest species of Glyptodon, Glyptodon clavipes, reached 3–3.3 m (9.8–10.8 ft) in length[236][135] and 2 t (2.2 short tons) in weight.[citation needed]
The largest known
pilosan is Eremotherium, a ground sloth with an estimated weight of up to 6.55 t (7.22 short tons) and a length of up to 6 m (20 ft),[237] which is as big as a bull
African bush elephant. The closely related ground sloth Megatherium attained similarly large dimensions.[238]
The largest known
litoptern was Macrauchenia, which had three hoofs per foot. It was a relatively large animal, with a body length of around 3 m (9.8 ft).[242]
Notoungulates (Notoungulata)
The largest
notoungulate known of complete remains is Toxodon. It was about 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) in body length, and about 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) high at the shoulder and resembled a heavy rhinoceros. Although incomplete, the preserved fossils suggests that Mixotoxodon were the most massive member of the group, with a weight about 3.8 t (4.2 short tons).[243]
Pyrotherians (Pyrotheria)
The largest mammal of the South American order
Pyrotheria was Pyrotherium at 2.9–3.6 m (9 ft 6 in – 11 ft 10 in) in length and 1.8–3.5 t (4,000–7,700 lb) in weight.[244]
Giant
mosasaurs are the largest-known animals within the
Squamata. The largest-known mosasaur is likely Mosasaurus hoffmanni, estimated at more than 17 m (56 ft) in length,[245][246] however these estimations are based on heads and total body length ratio 1:10, which is unlikely for Mosasaurus, and probably that ratio is about 1:7.[247] Another giant mosasaur is Tylosaurus, estimated at 10–14 m (33–46 ft) in length.[248][249] Another mosasaur, Prognathodon can reach similar size.
The largest known prehistoric snake is Titanoboa cerrejonensis, estimated at 12.8 m (42 ft) or even 14.3 m (47 ft)[250] in length and 1,135 kg (2,502 lb) in weight,[251] and
madtsoiidVasuki indicus which is estimated to reach between 11–15 m (36–49 ft).[252] A close rival in size to those snakes is
palaeophiid marine snake Palaeophis colossaeus, which may have been around 9 m (30 ft) in length[251][253][254] or even up to 12.3 m (40 ft).[255] Another known very large fossil snake is Gigantophis garstini, estimated at 9.3–10.7 m (31–35 ft) in length,[256][257] although later study shows smaller estimation about 6.6–7.2 m (22–24 ft).[258] The largest fossil
python is Liasis dubudingala with length roughly 9 m (30 ft).[259] The largest
viper as well as the largest venomous snake ever recorded is Laophis crotaloides from the Early
Pliocene of
Greece. This snake reached over 3 m (9.8 ft) in length and 26 kg (57 lb) in weight.[260][261] Another huge fossil viper is indeterminate species of Vipera. With a length of around 2 m (6 ft 7 in) it was one of the biggest predators of
Mallorca during the Early Pliocene.[262] The largest known
blind snake is Boipeba tayasuensis with estimated total length of 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in).[263]
The largest known land lizard is probably
megalania (Varanus priscus) at 7 m (23 ft) in length.[264] As extant relatives, megalania could have been venomous and in that case this lizard was also the largest venomous vertebrate ever evolved.[265] However, maximum size of this animal is subject to debate.[266]
Turtles, tortoises and close relatives (Pantestudines)
The largest known turtle ever was Archelon ischyros at 5 m (16 ft) long and 2,200 kg (4,900 lb).[267] Possible second-largest sea turtle was Protostega at 3.9 m (13 ft) in total body length.[268][269] There is even a larger specimen of this genus from Texas estimated at 4.2 m (14 ft) in total length.[270][268] Partially known Cratochelone is estimated to reach 4 m (13 ft) in total length.[271] Another huge prehistoric sea turtle is the Late Cretaceous Gigantatypus, estimated at over 3.5 m (11 ft) in length.[272]Psephophorus terrypratchetti from the Eocene attained 2.3–2.5 m (7.5–8.2 ft) in body length.[273]
The largest
tortoise was Megalochelys atlas at up to 2.7 m (9 ft) in shell length[274] and weighing 0.8–1.0 t (1,800–2,200 lb).[127]M. margae had carapace of 1.4–2 m (4.6–6.6 ft) long; an unnamed species from
Java reached at least 1.75 m (5.7 ft) in carapace length.[275] The
CenozoicTitanochelon were also larger than extant
giant tortoises, with a shell length of up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in).[276][277] Other giant tortoises include Centrochelys marocana at 1.8–2 m (5.9–6.6 ft) in carapace length and Mesoamerican Hesperotestudo sp. at 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in carapace length.[275]
The largest
trionychid ever recorded is indeterminate specimen GSP-UM 3019 from the
Middle Eocene of
Pakistan. Bony carapace of GSP-UM 3019 is 120 cm (3.9 ft) long and 110 cm (3.6 ft) wide indicates the total carapace diameter (with soft margin) about 2 m (6.6 ft).[278]Drazinderetes tethyensis from the same formation had a bony carapace 80 cm (2.6 ft) long and 70 cm (2.3 ft) wide.[278] Another huge trionychid is North American Axestemys byssinus at over 2 m (6.6 ft) in total length.[279]
Side-necked turtles (Pleurodira)
The largest freshwater turtle of all time was the
MiocenepodocnemidStupendemys, with an estimated parasagittal carapace length of 2.86 m (9 ft 5 in) and weight of up to 1,145 kg (2,524 lb).[280]Carbonemys cofrinii from the same family had a shell that measured about 1.72 m (5 ft 8 in),[281][282][283] complete shell was estimated at 1.8 m (5.9 ft).[284]
The largest
meiolaniid was Meiolania. Meiolania platyceps had a carapace 100 cm (3.3 ft) long[275] and probably reached over 3 m (9.8 ft) in total body length.[286] An unnamed Late Pleistocene species from
Queensland was even larger, up to 200 cm (6.6 ft) in carapace length.[275]Ninjemys oweni reached 100 cm (3.3 ft) in carapace length[275] and 200 kg (440 lb) in weight.[287]
The largest known
plesiosauroid was an indeterminate specimen possibly belonging to Aristonectes (identified as cf. Aristonectes sp.), with a body length of 11–11.9 metres (36–39 ft) and body mass of 10.7–13.5 metric tons (11.8–14.9 short tons).[290] Another long plesiosauroid was Albertonectes at 11.2–11.6 metres (37–38 ft).[291]Thalassomedon rivaled it in size, with its length at 10.86–11.6 m (35.6–38.1 ft).[292] Other large plesiosauroids are Styxosaurus and Elasmosaurus. Both reached some more than 10 m (33 ft) in length.[293][294]Hydralmosaurus (previously synonymized with Elasmosaurus and Styxosaurus) reached 9.44 m (31.0 ft) in total body length.[294] In past, Mauisaurus was considered to be more than 8 m (26 ft) in length,[295][294] but later it was determined as nomen dubium.[296]
There is much controversy over the largest-known of the
Pliosauroidea. Pliosaurus funkei (also known as "
Predator X") is a species of large pliosaur, known from remains discovered in
Norway in 2008. This pliosaur has been estimated at 10–13 m (33–43 ft) in length.[297] However, in 2002, a team of paleontologists in
Mexico discovered the remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as "
Monster of Aramberri", which is also estimated at 15 m (49 ft) in length,[298] with shorter estimation about 11.5 m (38 ft).[299] This species is, however, claimed to be a juvenile and has been attacked by a larger pliosaur.[300] Some media sources claimed that Monster of Aramberri was a Liopleurodon but its species is unconfirmed thus far.[298] Another very large pliosaur was Pliosaurus macromerus, known from a single 2.8-metre-long (9.2 ft) incomplete mandible.[301] The
Early CretaceousKronosaurus queenslandicus is estimated at 9–10.9 m (30–36 ft) in length and 10.6–12.1 t (11.7–13.3 short tons) in weight.[302][303] The
Late JurassicMegalneusaurus rex could reach lengths of 7.6–9.1 metres (25–30 ft).[304][305] Close contender in size was the
Late CretaceousMegacephalosaurus eulerti with a length in range of 6–9 m (20–30 ft).[306]
The largest
shuvosaurid and one of the largest pseudosuchian from the
Triassic period was Sillosuchus. Biggest specimens could have reached 9–10 m (30–33 ft) in length.[311][312]
The largest known carnivorous pseudosuchian of the Triassic is
loricatanFasolasuchus tenax, which measured an estimated of 8 to 10 m (26 to 33 ft).[313][311][312] It is both the largest "
rauisuchian" known to science, and the largest non-dinosaurian terrestrial predator ever discovered.[citation needed] Biggest individuals of Postosuchus[314] and Saurosuchus[315] had a body length of around 7 m (23 ft). A specimen of Prestosuchus discovered in 2010 suggest that this animal also reached lengths of nearly 7 m (23 ft) making it one of the largest Triassic pseudosuchians.[316]
The
Late CretaceousAegisuchus is the main contender for the title of the largest
crocodylomorph ever recorded. It reached 15 m (49 ft) in length by the lower estimate and as much as 22 m (72 ft) by the upper estimate,[320] although a length of over 15 m is likely an overestimate.[320]
Crocodylians (Crocodylia)
The largest
caiman and likely the largest
crocodylian was Purussaurus brasiliensis estimated at 11–13 m (36–43 ft).[321] According to another information, maximum estimate measure 11.4 m (37 ft) and almost 7.8 t (8.6 short tons) in length and in weight respectively.[322] Another giant caiman was Mourasuchus. Various estimates suggest the biggest specimens reached 9.47 m (31.1 ft) in length and 8.5 t (9.4 short tons) in weight[323] or 4.7–5.98 m (15.4–19.6 ft) in body length.[324]
Unnamed
Pliocene species of Quinkana known from partial remains may have reached up to 6 m (20 ft) in length, although other species (known from
Oligocene to
Pleistocene) are smaller with length just about 3 m (9.8 ft). It is not only the largest
mekosuchian (some studies reject it from this group[336]) but also it could have been
Australia's largest Pliocene predator.[264]Paludirex is another large mekosuchian with length over 4 m (13 ft).[337]
Some extinct
pholidosaurids reached giant sizes. In the past, the Sarcosuchus imperator was believed to be the largest crocodylomorph, with initial estimates proposing a length of 12 m (39 ft) and a weight of 8 t (8.8 short tons).[339] However, recent estimates have now shrunk to a length of 9 to 9.5 m (29.5 to 31.2 ft) and a weight of 3.5 to 4.3 metric tons (3.9 to 4.7 short tons).[340] Related to Sarcosuchus, Chalawan thailandicus could reached more than 10 m (33 ft) in length,[341] although other estimates suggest 7–8 m (23–26 ft).[329]
Some of largest terrestrial
notosuchian crocodylomorphs were the
MiocenesebecidBarinasuchus, with a skull of 95–110 cm (37–43 in) long, and
Eocene sebecid Dentaneosuchus with estimated mandible length of 1 m (3.3 ft).[344][345] Various estimates suggest a possible length of these animals between 3–10 m (9.8–32.8 ft). Using proportion of Stratiotosuchus which is also large to have 47 cm (19 in) long skull,[346]Barinasuchus is estimated to have length at least 6.3 m (21 ft).[344][345]
Other huge notosuchian, although only known from fragmentary material, is an early member Razanandrongobe, which skull size may exceeded that of Barinasuchus and overall length may be around 7 m (23 ft).[347][348]
Redondavenator was the largest
Triassic crocodylomorph ever recorded,[355] with a skull of at least 60 cm (2.0 ft) in length.[356][357] Another huge basal crocodylomorph was Carnufex[355] at 3 m (9.8 ft) long even through that is immature.[358]
The largest known
pterosaur was Quetzalcoatlus northropi, at 127 kg (280 lb) and with a wingspan of 10–12 m (33–39 ft).[359] Another close contender is Hatzegopteryx, also with a wingspan of 12 m (39 ft) or more.[359] This estimate is based on a skull 3 m (9.8 ft) long.[360] Yet another possible contender for the title is Cryodrakon which had a 10-metre (33 ft) wingspan.[361] An unnamed
pterodactyloid pterosaur from the
Nemegt Formation could reach a wingspan of nearly 10 m (33 ft).[362][363] According to various assumptions, the wingspan of Arambourgiania philadelphiae reached from 8 m (26 ft) to more than 10 m (33 ft).[362][361] South American Tropeognathus reached the maximum wingspan of 8.7 m (29 ft).[364][365]
In April 2018, paleontologists announced the discovery of a previously unknown
ichthyosaur that may have reached lengths of 26 m (85 ft) making it one of the largest animals known, rivaling some
blue whales in size.[375][376] These remains were later named Ichthyotitan and it has been estimated to reach up to 25 m (82 ft), which makes it the largest ichthyosaur and the largest
marine reptile ever.[377] Another large ichthyosaur was the
Late TriassicShastasaurus sikanniensis at 21 m (69 ft) in length[378][379] and 81.5 t (180,000 lb) in weight.[380] Another, larger ichthyosaur was found in 1850 in
Aust.[381] Its remains seemed to surpass the measurements of the other ichthyosaur, but the researchers commented that the remains were too fragmentary for a size estimate to be made.[381] Another huge ichthyosaur was Shonisaurus popularis at 15 m (49 ft) in length and 29.7 t (65,000 lb) in weight.[379] The largest
Middle Triassic ichthyosaur as well as the largest animal of that time was Cymbospondylus youngorum at 17.65 m (57.9 ft) in length[380] and 44.7 t (99,000 lb) in weight.[380]
A mega-
sauropod, Maraapunisaurus fragillimus (previously known as Amphicoelias fragillimus), is a contender for the largest-known dinosaur in history. It has been estimated at 58–60 m (190–197 ft) in maximum length and 122,400 kg (269,800 lb) in weight.[389] Unfortunately, the fossil remains of this dinosaur have been lost.[389] More recently, it was estimated at 35–40 m (115–131 ft) in length and 80–120 t (180,000–260,000 lb) in weight.[390]
Known from the incomplete and now disintegrated remains, the
Late CretaceousBruhathkayosaurus matleyi was an anomalously large sauropod.[391] Informal estimations suggested as huge parameters as 45 m (148 ft) in length and 139–220 t (306,000–485,000 lb) in weight.[392] Some estimation however, suggests 37 m (121 ft) and 95 t (209,000 lb) but it still much heavier than most other sauropods.[392] More recent estimations by Gregory Paul in 2023 has placed its weight range around 110 t (240,000 lb) to a 170 t (370,000 lb). If true, it would make Bruhathkayosaurus the single largest terrestrial animal to have walked the earth and would have rivalled the largest blue whale recorded.[393]
BYU 9024, a massive
cervical vertebra found in
Utah,[394] may belong to Barosaurus lentus[395][396] or Supersaurus vivianae[397] of a huge size, possibly 45–48 m (148–157 ft) in length and 60–66 t (132,000–146,000 lb) in body mass.[398][396]Supersaurus vivianae itself may have been the longest dinosaur yet discovered as a study of 3 specimens suggested length of 39 m (128 ft) or over 40 m (130 ft).[397]
Other huge sauropods include Argentinosaurus, Alamosaurus, and Puertasaurus with estimated lengths of 30–33 m (98–108 ft) and weights of 50–80 t (55–88 short tons).[407]Patagotitan was estimated at 37 m (121 ft) in length[408] and 57 t (63 short tons) in average weight,[409] and was similar in size to Argentinosaurus and Puertasaurus.[410] Giant sauropods like Supersaurus, Sauroposeidon, and Diplodocus probably rivaled them in length but not in weight.[389]Dreadnoughtus was estimated at 49 t (108,000 lb) in weight[409] and 26 m (85 ft) in length but the most complete individual was immature when it died.[411]Turiasaurus is considered of being the largest dinosaur from Europe,[412][413] with an estimated length of 30 m (98 ft) and a weight of 50 t (55 short tons).[407][413] However, with lower estimate at 21 m (69 ft) and 30 t (66,000 lb) it was smaller than Portuguese Lusotitan that reached 24 m (79 ft) in length and 34 t (75,000 lb) in weight.[414]
Many large sauropods are still unnamed and may rival the current record holders:
The "
Archbishop", a large brachiosaur that was discovered in 1930. As of October 2023[update], a scientific paper on the specimen is still in progress.[415]
Brachiosaurus nougaredi is yet another large brachiosaur from Early Cretaceous North Africa. The remains have been lost, but the sacrum drawing remains. It suggests a
sacrum of almost 1.3 m (4.3 ft) long,[416] making it the largest dinosaur sacrum discovered so far, except those of Argentinosaurus and Apatosaurus.[417]
In 2010, the femur of a large sauropod was discovered in France. The femur suggests an animal that grew to immense sizes.[418]
Non-avian theropods (Theropoda)
The largest
theropod as well as the largest terrestrial (or possibly semi-aquatic)[419] predator yet known is Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, with the largest specimen known estimated at 12.6–18 m (41–59 ft) in length and around 7–20.9 t (8–23 short tons) in weight.[420][421] New estimates published in 2014 and 2018, based on a more complete specimen supported that Spinosaurus could reach lengths of 15 to 16 meters (49 to 52 ft).[422][423][424] The latest estimates suggest a weight of 6.4 to 7.5 metric tons (7.1 to 8.3 short tons).[423][424] The
White Rock spinosaurid had vertebrae comparable in dimensions to Spinosaurus, it was likely a huge theropod with a length over 10 m (33 ft).[425]
The largest
pachycephalosaur was the eponymous Pachycephalosaurus. Previously claimed to be at 7 m (23 ft) in length,[413] it was later estimated about 4.5 metres (14.8 ft) long and a weight of about 450 kilograms (990 lb).[437]
The very largest known
ornithopods, like Shantungosaurus were as heavy as medium-sized sauropods at up to 23 t (25 short tons),[440][441] and 16.6 m (54 ft) in length.[440]Magnapaulia reached 12.5 m (41 ft) in length,[442] or, according to original description, even 15 m (49 ft).[443][413] The
MongolianSaurolophus, S. angustirostris, reached 13 m (43 ft) long and possibly more.[444] Such animal could weighed up to 11 t (12 short tons).[444] The largest Edmontosaurus reached 12 m (39 ft) in length and around 6 t (6.6 short tons) in body mass.[445] An estimated maximum length of Brachylophosaurus is 11 m (36 ft) resulting in weight of 7 t (7.7 short tons).[446] PASAC-1, informally named "
Sabinosaurus", is the largest well-known North American saurolophine,[447] around 11 m (36 ft) long, that is about 20% larger than other known specimens.[448]Hypsibema missouriensis was up to 10.7 m (35 ft) long.[449][450] The
Late CretaceousCharonosaurus was estimated around 10 m (33 ft) in length and 5 t (5.5 short tons) in weight.[413][451]
The largest ornithopod outside of
Hadrosauroidea was likely the Iguanodon. Biggest specimens reached 11 m (36 ft) in length[452][453] and weighed around 4.5 t (5.0 short tons).[454] Another large ornithopod is Iguanacolossus, with 9 m (30 ft) in length and 5 t (5.5 short tons) in weight.[455][456]
The largest
rhabdodontid was Matheronodon, estimated at 4.8 m (16 ft) in length.[457]Rhabdodon reached approximately 4 m (13 ft) and 250 kg (550 lb) according to 2016 estimates.[458]
Birds (Aves)
The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct
Giant elephant bird (Aepyornis maximus) of Madagascar, whose closest living relative is the
kiwi. Giant elephant birds exceeded 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) in height, and average a mass of 850 kg (1,870 lb)[459]
The largest fowl was the
Stirton's mihirung(Dromornis stirtoni)
of
Australia, part of a group called
mihirungs of the family
Dromornithidae,
Stirton's mihirung exceeded 2.7 m (8.9 ft) in height, and average a mass of 500 kilograms (1,100 lb)[460]
The largest carnivorous bird was the
Thunderbird (Brontornis burmeisteri), an extinct flightless bird from
South America which reached a weight of 319 kg (703 lb) and a height of approximately 2.8 metres (9.2 ft).[461]
The tallest recorded bird was the
Giant ostrich (Pachystruthio dmanisensis), part of the ostrich family. This particular species of ostrich stood at 3.5 metres (11.5 ft) tall and average a mass of 450 kg (990 lb)[462]
The largest Neoaves was the
Brazilian terror bird(Paraphysornis brasiliensis)
of
South America,
Brazilian terror bird exceeded 240 kg (530 lb) in mass,[463]
One of the largest
enantiornitheans was Enantiornis,[484] with a length in life of around 78.5 cm (30.9 in), hip height of 34 cm (13 in), weight of 6.75 kg (14.9 lb),[485] and wingspan comparable to some of the modern gulls, around 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in).[484]Gurilynia was the largest
Mesozoic bird from
Mongolia, with a length of 53 cm (21 in), hip height of 23.2 cm (9.1 in), and weight of 2.1 kg (4.6 lb).[485]
Avisauridae
The
Late CretaceousAvisaurus was almost as large as Enantiornis. It had a wingspan around 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in),[484] a length of 72 cm (28 in), hip height of 31.5 cm (12.4 in), and weight of 5.1 kg (11 lb).[485] Even larger could be the Soroavisaurus. One
tibiotarsus (PVL-4033) indicates an animal with a length of 80 cm (31 in), hip height of 35 cm (14 in), and weight of 7.25 kg (16.0 lb).[485] However, according to Walker and Dyke (2009) which considered PVL-4033 as Martinavis sp., its tibiotarsus length is 85.6 mm (3.37 in),[486] much shorter than that of Lectavis (156 mm (6.1 in) tibiotarsus)[487] which the same book estimated a length of 41 cm (16 in), hip height of 30 cm (12 in), and weight of 1.15 kg (2.5 lb).[485]Mirarce was comparable in size to a
turkey, much larger than most of other enantiornitheans.[488]
Pengornithidae
One of the biggest
Early Cretaceous enantiornithine bird was Pengornis at 50 cm (1.6 ft) in length[413] and skull length of 54.7 mm (2.15 in).[489]
Gargantuaviidae
Gargantuavis is the largest known bird of the
Mesozoic, a size ranging between the
cassowary and the
ostrich, and a mass of 140 kg (310 lb) like modern ostriches.[490] In 2019 specimens MDE A-08 and IVPP-V12325 were measured at 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) in length, 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) in hip height, and 120 kg (260 lb) in weight.[470]
Large individuals of Gastornis (also known as Diatryma) reaged up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height.[493] Weight of Gastornis ranges from 100 kg (220 lb) to 156 kg (344 lb) and sometimes to 180 kg (400 lb) for European specimens and from 160 kg (350 lb) to 229 kg (505 lb) for North American.[494][468][495]
Waterfowl (Anseriformes)
Possibly flightless, the
MioceneGarganornis ballmanni was larger than any extant members of
Anseriformes, with 15.3–22.3 kg (34–49 lb) in body mass.[496] Another huge anseriform was the flightless
New Zealand goose (Cnemiornis). It reached 15–18 kg (33–40 lb), approaching in size to small species of moa.[497]
The largest herons
Bennu heron (Ardea bennuides) Based on remains discovered, it was approximately 2 m (6.6 ft) tall and had a wingspan up to 2.7 m (8.9 ft), thus surpassing the size of the largest living species in the heron family, the
goliath heron.[506]
The ever largest ibis
Jamaican ibis (Xenicibis xympithecus) as a large ibis, weighing about 2 kg (70 oz).
Miomancalla howardi was the largest charadriiform of all time, weighing approximately 1.5 ft (0.46 m)(?) more than the
great auk with a height of approximately 1 m (3.3 ft).[509]
One of the heaviest flying bird ever was Argentavis from the family
Teratornithidae. The immense bird had a wingspan estimated up to 5.09–6.5 m (16.7–21.3 ft)[472][511] and a weight up to 70 to 72 kg (154 to 159 lb).[512][472]Argentavis'shumerus was only slightly shorter than an entire human arm.[513] Another huge teratorn was Aiolornis, it had a wingspan around 5 m (16 ft).[514] The
PleistoceneTeratornis merriami reached 13.7 kg (30 lb) and 2.94–3.38 m (9.6–11.1 ft) in wingspan.[515] Even with lower estimates, it was larger than the observed
California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) of nowadays.[515]
Seriemas and allies (Cariamiformes)
The largest known-ever
Cariamiforme and largest
phorusrhacid or "terror bird" (highly predatory, flightless birds of America) was Brontornis, which was about 175 cm (69 in) tall at the shoulder, could raise its head 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) above the ground and could have weighed as much as 400 kg (880 lb).[516] The immense phorusrhacid Kelenken stood 3 m (9.8 ft) tall[517][518] with a skull 716 mm (28.2 in) long (460 mm (18 in) of which was beak), had the largest head of any known bird.[517] South American Phorusrhacos stood nearly 2.4 to 2.7 meters (7 ft 10 in to 8 ft 10 in) tall, and probably weighed nearly 130 kilograms (290 lb), as much as a male
ostrich.[519][520] The largest North American phorusrhacid is Titanis, which is about 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) tall,[521] as tall as a forest elephant.
The tallest known bird was the
South Island giant moa (Dinornis robustus), part of the moa family of
New Zealand that went extinct about 500 years ago. It stood up to 3.7 m (12 ft) tall,[531] and weighed approximately half as much as a large elephant bird due to its comparatively slender frame.[532]
The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct
elephant birds (Vorombe, Aepyornis) of Madagascar, which were related to the ostrich. They exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in height and 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) in weight.[532]
The largest pigeon relative known was the
dodo (Raphus cucullatus), possibly exceeding 1 m (3.3 ft) in height and weighing as much as 28 kg (62 lb), although recent estimates have indicated that an average wild dodo weighed much less at approximately 10.2 kg (22 lb).[538][539]
Pheasants, turkeys, gamebirds and allies (Galliformes)
The largest known
cormorant was the
spectacled cormorant of the North Pacific (Phalacrocorax perspicillatus), which became extinct around 1850 and averaged around 6.4 kg (14 lb) and 1.15 m (3 ft 9 in).[483]
The largest known darter was Giganhinga with estimated weight about 17.7 kg (39 lb),[478] earlier study even claims 25.7 kg (57 lb).[541]
The largest known grebe, the
Atitlán grebe (Podylimbus gigas), reached a length of about 46–50 centimetres (18–20 in).[543]
Bony-toothed birds (Odontopterygiformes)
The largest known of the
Odontopterygiformes— a group which has been variously allied with Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes and Anseriformes and the largest flying birds of all time other than Argentavis were the huge Pelagornis, Cyphornis, Dasornis, Gigantornis and Osteodontornis.[citation needed] They had a wingspan of 5.5–6 m (18–20 ft) and stood about 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) tall.[citation needed] Exact size estimates and judging which one was largest are not yet possible for these birds, as their bones were extremely thin-walled, light and fragile, and thus most are only known from very incomplete remains.[citation needed]
Woodpeckers and allies (Piciformes)
The largest known
woodpecker is the possibly extinct
imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) with a total length of about 56–60 cm (22–24 in).[544]
One of the heaviest known penguin ever known is Kumimanu fordycei, body mass estimate based on humerus results 148 to 159.7 kg (326 to 352 lb).[546] Other largest penguins, such as cf. Palaeeudyptes klekowskii of
Antarctica, with body length (tip of the bill to tip of the tail) estimated about 2.02 m (6 ft 8 in) and body weight is estimated about 116.21 kg (256.2 lb),[547] is later estimated to 84.2 kg (186 lb), and humerus length is 90% of one from K. fordycei.[546] Another large penguin is Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi of
New Zealand and
Antarctica. Its body length is once estimated 1.99 m (6 ft 6 in) and was 97.8 kg (216 lb) in weight. There is also an estimate that one remain of Anthropornis can reach that body length of 2.05 m (6 ft 9 in) and 108 kg (238 lb) in weight.[548] However, estimation from humerus shows that it reached up to 67 kg (148 lb) for A. nordenskjoeldi.[546] Other large penguins are
New Zealand giant penguin (Pachydyptes pondeorsus) weighing possibly around 65.4 to 94.6 kg (144 to 209 lb), and Icadyptes salasi at 52.8 to 73.0 kg (116.4 to 160.9 lb).[549][546]
Owls (Strigiformes)
The largest known
owl of all time was the
CubanOrnimegalonyx at 1,100 mm (43.3 in) tall probably exceeding 9 kg (20 lb).[550]
The largest known
frog ever was an as yet unnamed
Eocene species that was about 58–59.1-centimetre-long (22.8–23.3 in).[552] The
Late CretaceousBeelzebufo grew to at least 23.2 cm (9.1 in) (snout-vent length), which is around the size of a modern
African bullfrog.[553]
The largest known diacectid, herbivorous Diadectes, was a heavily built animal, up to 3 m (9.8 ft) long, with thick vertebrae and ribs.[556][557]
Anthracosauria
The largest known anthracosaur was Anthracosaurus, with skull about 40 cm (16 in) in length.[558]
Embolomeri
The longest member of this group was Eogyrinus attheyi, species sometimes placed under genus Pholiderpeton.[559] Its skull had length about 41 cm (16 in).[560]
Temnospondyls (Temnospondyli)
The largest known temnospondyl amphibian is Prionosuchus, which grew to lengths of 9 m (30 ft).[551] Another huge temnospondyl was Mastodonsaurus giganteus at 6 m (20 ft) long.[561] Unnamed species of temnospondyl from
Lesotho is partial, but possible body length estimation is 7 m (23 ft).[562]
The largest known
placoderm was the giant predatory Dunkleosteus. The largest and most well known species was D. terrelli, various estimate put its length around 4.1–10 m (13.5–32.8 ft) in length and 1–4 t (1.1–4.4 short tons) in weight.[568] Another large placoderm, Titanichthys, may have rivaled it in size.[569]Titanichthys is estimated to have a length around 4.1–7.5 m (13–25 ft)[570][571][572][568]
Species in the extinct genus Otodus were huge. A giant
shark, Otodus megalodon[573][574][575] is by far the biggest
mackerel shark ever known.[576] Most estimates of megalodon's size extrapolate from teeth, with maximum length estimates up to 10.6–20 m (35–66 ft)[574][575][577] and average length estimates of 10.5 m (34 ft).[578][579] Due to fragmentary remains, there have been many contradictory size estimates for megalodon, as they can only be drawn from fossil teeth and vertebrae.[580]: 87 [581] Mature male megalodon may have had a body mass of 12.6 to 33.9 metric tons (13.9 to 37.4 short tons), and mature females may have been 27.4 to 59.4 metric tons (30.2 to 65.5 short tons), assuming that males could range in length from 10.5 to 14.3 m (34 to 47 ft) and females 13.3 to 17 m (44 to 56 ft).[582] Related to megalodon, Otodus angustidens and O. chubutensis reached the large sizes too. Each was estimated at 9.3 m (31 ft)[583] and 12.2 m (40 ft),[584] respectively.
The heaviest
thresher shark was likely Alopias grandis. It was similar in size or even larger than the extant
great white shark and probably did not have an elongated dorsal tail, characteristic of modern relatives.[588]
Ground sharks (Carcharhiniformes)
The
CenozoicHemipristis serra was considerably larger than its modern-day relatives and had much larger teeth. Its total length is estimated to be at 6 metres (20 ft) long.[589]
Hybodonts (Hybodontiformes)
One of the largest
hybodontiforms was the Jurassic Asteracanthus with body length of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).[590]Crassodus reifi is known from less materials, however it is estimated that reached over 3 m (9.8 ft).[591]
The largest known
eugeneodont is an as-yet unnamed species of Helicoprion discovered in Idaho. The specimens suggest an animal that possibly exceeded 12 m (39 ft) in length.[594] Another fairly large eugeneodont is Parahelicoprion. Being more slimmer than Helicoprion, it reached nearly the same size,[594] possibly up to 12 m (39 ft) in length.[595] Both had the largest sizes among the animals of
Paleozoic era.[596][595]
Not only the largest known
rhizodont, but also the largest lobe-finned fish was the 5.63–7 m (18.5–23.0 ft) long Rhizodus.[600][568] Another large rhizodonts were Strepsodus with estimated length around 3–5 m (9.8–16.4 ft) and Barameda estimated at 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) in length.[601][602]
The largest known fossil
sturgeon is "Acipenser" gigantissimus known from fragmentary remains, which is estimated to reach up to 5.8 m (19 ft).[604]
The largest known fossil
paddlefish is unnamed remain from
Judith River Formation, it may exceeded 2 m (6 ft 7 in), known remains exceeded size of recently extinct
Chinese paddlefish, which scientifically reported to exceed 3 m (9.8 ft).[605]
Opahes, ribbonfishes, oarfishes and allies (Lampriformes)
Megalampris was likely the largest fossil
opah. This fish was around 4 m (13 ft) in length when alive, which is twice the length of the largest living opah species, Lampris guttatus.[613]
Cambriankinorhynchs from
Qingjiang biota, also known as "mud dragons", reached 4 cm (1.6 in) in length, much larger than extant relatives that grow only a few millimeters in length.[623][624]
Arthropods (Arthropoda)
Dinocaridida
Gilled lobopodians
Based on the findings of mouthparts, the
Cambrian gilled
lobopodianOmnidens amplus is estimated to have been 1.5 metres (4.9 ft).[625] It is also known as the largest Cambrian animal known to exist.[625]
Mongolarachne jurassica is the largest described fossil
spider, with the total body length of female is approximately 24.6 mm (0.97 in) while the front legs reach about 56.5 mm (2.22 in) in length.[640]Dinodiplura ambulacra had larger body length, combined length of carapace and opisthosoma reaches 26.15 mm (1.030 in).[641]
The largest of prehistoric
whipscorpions and possibly the largest-known whipscorpion ever discovered[642] was Mesoproctus rayoli. Type species had body length reaching 66.9 mm (2.63 in) with a carapace of 25.7 mm (1.01 in) in length, while another specimen have a carapace of 32.5 mm (1.28 in) in length and 16 mm (0.63 in) in width, comparable or even larger than the extant Mastigoproctus have.[643][644]
Retifacies probably reached up to 55 cm (22 in).[648]Tegopelte is another one example of large non-trilobite artiopod, reached 280 mm (11 in) long[649] and was the largest of the
Burgess Shale bilaterians, surpassing all other benthic organisms by at least twice.[649]
Trilobites (Trilobita)
Some of
trilobites exceeded 60 cm (24 in) in length. A nearly complete specimen of Isotelus rex from
Manitoba attained a length over 70 cm (28 in), and an Ogyginus forteyi from Portugal was almost as long. Fragments of
trilobites suggest even larger record sizes. An isolated
pygidium of Hungioides bohemicus implies that the full animal was 90 cm (35 in) long.[650]
Myriapods (Myriapoda)
The largest known
myriapod by far was Arthropleura. Measuring 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) long[651] and 50 centimetres (20 in) wide.[652] Some specimens could have been even larger, up to 2.63 metres (8 ft 8 in) in length and 50 kilograms (110 lb) in weight.[653][654]
Sawflies, wasps, bees, ants and allies (Hymenoptera)
The largest known of this group was the giant ant Titanomyrma giganteum with
queens growing to 6 cm (2.4 in). It had a wingspan of 15 cm (5.9 in).[658]
Chresmodidae had long specialized legs like of the modern
Gerridae family. One of the Chresmodidae, Chresmoda obscura, could have reached a size of about 19 centimetres (7.5 in).[666]
Some
Carboniferous cockroach-like insects grouping in
Blattoptera like Archoblattina beecheri[672] and Necymylacris (Xenoblatta) scudderi[673][674] could reach around 9 centimetres in total length, which is comparable to a modern Megaloblatta longipennis.
The largest known
palaeodictyopteran was Mazothairos, with an estimated wingspan of up to 560 mm (22 in).[684] If subcircular wing known from
Piesberg Quarry belongs to palaeodictyopteran, it possibly had single wing length at least 30 cm (12 in).[685]
Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails) and other wingless primitive insects
The largest known
machilid is Triassic Gigamachilis, with 40 millimetres (1.6 in) body length not counting the length of the
filament, and estimated total length about 80 millimetres (3.1 in).[686]
The largest specimens of the extinct suborder
Monura reached 30 millimetres (1.2 in) or more, not counting the length of the filament.[687]
Although Ramsdelepidion was once considered as 60 millimetres (2.4 in)-long
silverfish,[688] it was later considered that classification is uncertain and just treated as
stem group insect.[689]
Wingless early insect Carbotriplura had body length about 103 millimetres (4.1 in) without tail filaments.[690]
Chaetognatha
The
CambrianTimorebestia koprii lived 518 million years ago and was a relative of the extant
arrow worms living in today's oceans. Growing to lengths of 30 cm, including the antennae, they were much larger and massive than modern forms. Before the evolution of nektonic panarthropods, jawed vertebrates and cephalopods, this group of large predatory
gnathiferans dominated the top of the food chain.[691][692]
Ringed worms (Annelida)
Websteroprion is the largest known fossil
eunicidanannelid, with estimated length ranges 0.42–8.3 m (1 ft 5 in – 27 ft 3 in), however comparison with closely related extant taxa indicates length around 1–2 m (3 ft 3 in – 6 ft 7 in).[693] It also had the biggest
scolecodonts of any prehistoric
polychaete, up to 13.2 mm (0.52 in) in length and possibly larger.[693]
Pebasiconcha immanis is the largest land snail ever known, shell height is 25.6 cm (10.1 in) with a partial specimen that may exceed 30 cm (12 in) in height.[697]
Bivalves (Bivalvia)
The largest known
bivalve ever as well as the largest
inoceramid was Platyceramus platinus, a giant that usually had an axial length of 1 m (3 ft 3 in), but some individuals could reach an axial length of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).[698] Another large prehistoric bivalve was Inoceramus. In 1952, 187 cm (6.14 ft)-long specimen of Inoceramus steenstrupi was found in the
Late Cretaceous deposits of
Greenland.[699]
Some Permian
alatoconchid genus like Shikamaia had shell length about 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[700] Previous estimation reconstructed length of Shikamaia around 1.6 m (5 ft 3 in).[701]
The longest
ostreid is Konbostrea, with shell height reaching up to 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in).[702]
The largest and longest known of
nautiloids was Endoceras giganteum with a shell length of 5.73 m (18.8 ft). There is a record of individual whose shell length had reached 9.14 m (30.0 ft), but it is doubtful.[705]
Ammonites (Ammonoidea)
The largest known
ammonite was Parapuzosia seppenradensis.[706] A partial fossil specimen found in
Germany had a shell diameter of 1.95 m (6 ft 5 in), but the
living chamber was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about 3.5 m (11 ft) and weighed about 705 kg (1,554 lb) when it was alive.[707] However, later study estimates shell diameter up to around 2 m (6 ft 7 in).[708]
Belemnites (Belemnoidea)
The largest known
belemnite was Megateuthis gigantea, reaching about 50 and 700 mm (2.0 and 27.6 in) in maximum diameter and length of rostrum, respectively.[709]
Squids, octopuses, cuttlefishes and allies (Neocoleoidea)
OctopodEnchoteuthis melanae (considered as specimen of Tusoteuthis longa) had mantle length up to 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), comparable to the modern-day
giant squid. Previously, this taxon is considered as animal like giant squid, with total length including arms over 10 metres (33 ft). However, considering other fossil relatives, total length including arms is estimated to be around 3 metres (9.8 ft).[710]
Longest specimens of Trepassia wardae (also known as Charnia wardi) reached 185 cm (73 in) in length.[720]Charnia masoni is known from specimens as small as only 1 cm (0.39 in), up to the largest specimens of 66 cm (26 in) in length.[721]
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