Justinian campaigns (533–555): The Eastern Roman emperor
Justinian launched an ambitious reconquest of Italy, North Africa and parts of Spain. However, new invaders like the
Avars,
Lombards and
Slavs, alongside a pandemic known as the
Plague of Justinian and various
volcanicwinters ended his ambition of recuperate the West and consolidate the reconquest.
The Eastern Roman emperor
Heraclius adopted the Greek language as official language in 610. Constantinople's territorial control shrunk to Greece and Anatolia, because of Persian, Avar and finally Arab invasions. Due to these changing circumstances, the reign of Heraclius is often regarded as the turning point from which historiography stops calling it the "Eastern Roman Empire", and starts speaking of the "Byzantine Empire".[1]
645–656: Renewed war with the Caliphate, loss of
Cyprus and most of Armenia. The Rashidun advance towards Constantinople halted following the outbreak of the
First Fitna.
668–678: Renewed attacks on the Byzantine Empire by
Muawiyah I, leading to the
First Arab Siege of Constantinople. Following its failure, a truce was agreed, providing for payment of tribute, men and horses to the Empire.
686–688: Successful Byzantine offensive established Byzantine control over Armenia and
Caucasian Iberia, followed by favourable peace agreement with the
Umayyad Caliphate, in return for the withdrawal of the
Mardaites into the Empire.
688–689: Balkan campaign of
Justinian II secured the coast between Thrace and Macedonia. Many Slavs were captured and resettled in imperial territory. Over 30,000 were incorporated into the Byzantine army.
689: Justinian II leads his army into Syria when
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan stops the payment of tributes due to Mardaites raids. Approximately 12,000 Mardaites are deported to the Empire. Peace is re-established and tributes resumed.
692–718: Almost constant war with the Arabs in various fronts. The defeat at the
Battle of Sebastopolis and internal instability led to the gradual loss of Armenia and Cilicia, and despite some successes by Emperor
Heraclius, the Byzantines generally maintained a defensive stance against the annual Arab raids into Anatolia.
Carthage fell in 697. Recovered soon after, it was
again lost in 698, marking the end of
Byzantine North Africa. From 712 on, the Arab raids penetrated ever deeper into Anatolia, with the final objective of mounting an assault on Constantinople itself. The repulsion of the
Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717–718) was a major Byzantine success. Consider to be one of history's most important battles, the victory halted Muslim advance into Southeastern Europe for centuries.
8th century
708: War with Bulgaria ends in defeat at
Anchialus.
720–740 : Annual Arab raiding expeditions (ṣawā'if) against Byzantine Anatolia resume. Stiffening Byzantine resistance leads to the victory at
Akroinon at 740.
741–752: Campaigns of
Constantine V against the Arabs, who were embroiled in
civil war, leading to the recovery of all of Armenia and
Cyprus.
755–767: War with the
Bulgars.
Constantine V defeats the Bulgar khan
Telets, leading to the conclusion of a favourable peace treaty in 767.
772–775: War with the Bulgars under
Telerig, launched as a pre-emptive strike by
Constantine V.
775–783: War with the
Abbasids. After the death of Constantine V in 775, Arab raids resumed. After a heavy defeat at Germanicopolis in 779/780, the Abbasids launched a series of major invasions under
Harun al-Rashid, which led to the conclusion of a truce in 783.
780–783: Raids by the Bulgars under
Kardam, leading to an agreement of non-aggression in exchange for annual payments.
797–798: Large-scale invasion by
Harun al-Rashid leads to the resumption of annual payments to the Caliphate in return for peace.
9th century
803–809: War with the Abbasids, resulting from
Nikephoros I's cessation of annual tribute payments. The Arabs under
Harun al-Rashid achieved significant early successes, but the outbreak of a revolt in
Khorasan facilitated a Byzantine counter-offensive in 807–809. A truce in 809 restored the territorial status quo.
808–816: Wars with the Bulgars, beginning with the Bulgarian
capture of Sofia. A large-scale retaliatory campaign ended in the disastrous
battle of Pliska (811), following which
Krum of Bulgaria raided Eastern Thrace and secured a major victory at
Versinikia. Following his death in 814,
Leo V the Armenian defeated the Bulgars at
Mesembria and secured a 30-year peace.
830–841: War with the Abbasids, with large-scale invasions launched by caliphs
al-Ma'mun and
al-Mu'tasim. Despite a crushing defeat at the
Battle of Dazimon and the
sack of Amorium in 838, Emperor
Theophilos was able to conclude a truce in 841 without territorial losses, although raids by the Muslim border emirates continued.
ca. 844–878: Wars with the
Paulicians of
Tephrike end with the destruction of the Paulician state and its incorporation into the Empire.
851–863: War with the Abbasids and their clients. Successful Byzantine raids in Syria, Mesopotamia and Egypt are checked by a series of Muslim invasions of
Anatolia in 860. Another invasion in 863 sees the complete annihilation of the Muslim army at the
Battle of Lalakaon.
852, 855–856: Short wars with Bulgaria, ending in the recovery of several cities in northern Thrace.
871–885: Campaigns led by
Basil I in person against northern Mesopotamia (871–873) are followed by a series of expeditions against the Muslims in
Sicily and
Southern Italy. The final loss of Sicily could not be averted, but the Arabs are driven from Southern Italy and
Dalmatia, laying the foundations of the
Catepanate of Italy.
894–896/897:
War with Bulgaria under Tsar
Simeon erupts over trade rights. It ends with a Bulgarian victory after the
Battle of Bulgarophygon. The Byzantines agree to pay tribute and restore the market for Bulgarian goods to Constantinople.
964–975: Sustained Byzantine offensive in the East, under
Nikephoros II Phokas and
John I Tzimiskes, leads to the conquest of
Cilicia,
Cyprus, much of western Armenia and northern Syria. Aleppo becomes an imperial vassal.
1068-1071:
Siege of Bari The Normans conquered Bari and put an end to the Catepanate of Italy.
1071:
Battle of Mantzikert The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines and began the invasion of Anatolia.
1078: Suleyman creates the Sultanate of Rum after conquering Nicaea.
1081–1085: War against the first
Norman invasion of the Balkans. Early Byzantine defeat at
Dyrrhachium (1081), but the successful defence of
Thessaly and naval victories with Venetian aid led to the eventual abandonment of the invasion after the death of
Robert Guiscard.
1086–1091: Uprising of the
Bogomils in the Balkans, aided by the
Cumans and
Pechenegs. Early Byzantine defeat at
Dristra (1086), but the Pechenegs were decisively defeated at the
Battle of Levounion in 1091.
1096–1097: The
First Crusade passed through Byzantium on its way to the
Holy Land.
Recovery of
Nicaea with the Crusaders' aid, and subsequent reconquest of much of western Asia Minor by
John Doukas.
1110–1117: Renewed war with the
Seljuk Turks. Initial Turkish advances are reversed in a treaty concluded after the Byzantine victory at the
Battle of Philomelion.
1124–1126: War with Venice over the non-renewal of trading privileges by
John II Komnenos. The Venetian fleet ravaged the coasts of Greece, forcing the emperor to back down.
1171–1177:
War with Venice. Initial Venetian moves in the Aegean checked by the Byzantine fleet. Truce concluded in 1177, peace treaty in 1183.
1176–1180: War with the Seljuks. Initial campaign against ends in the defeat at the
Battle of Myriokephalon, resulting in the gradual loss of territory in Anatolia.
1235: Joint Nicaean-Bulgarian
siege of Constantinople fails
1254–1256: Bulgaria attacks Nicaea after the death of
John III Vatatzes, in an attempt to recover lost territory. Emperor
Theodore II Laskaris campaigns against the Bulgarians and drives them back.
ca. 1272–1280: Campaigns of
Licario recover
Euboea and many Aegean islands for the Empire.
sometime in 1273–1275: Large-scale campaign against
John I Doukas of Thessaly. The Byzantine army is defeated at
Neopatras, but the navy scores a major victory at
Demetrias.
1274–1275: Byzantine offensive against
Angevin holdings in
Albania drive the Angevin forces out of most of the country, although repeated assaults on their last two strongholds of
Dyrrhachium and
Valona fail.
1279: Unsuccessful campaigns against Bulgaria, defeat at
Devina.
1280–1281:
Angevin offensive in Albania is repulsed at
Berat, and most of Albania is retaken.
1302–1305: War with the
Ottoman Turks. After a defeat in the
Battle of Bapheus, the Byzantines hire the
Catalan Company. After a series of victories against the Turks, the Catalans turn against Byzantium following the murder of their leader.
1304–1305: The Bulgarians attack Byzantium, and manage to recover the port cities on the Black Sea coast.
1326–1338: Gradual capture of the remaining Byzantine cities in northwestern Anatolia by the Ottomans,
Bursa in 1326,
Nicaea in 1331 and
Nicomedia in 1337. Defeats of the Byzantines in battles at
Pelekanon and
Philokrene.
^
ab"zevende eeuw". Encarta Encyclopedie
Winkler Prins (in Dutch). Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum. 2002.
^Ziemann, Daniel. (2019) Das erste Bulgarische Reich: Eine frühmittelalterliche Großmacht zwischen Byzanz und dem Abendland. In: Handbuch zur Geschichte Südosteuropas v. 1, p. 601-638.