Licancabur formed atop of
Pleistoceneignimbrites and has been active during the
Holocene, after the
ice ages. Three stages of
lava flows emanate from the edifice and have a young appearance. Although no historic eruptions of the volcano are known, lava flows extending into
Laguna Verde have been dated to 13,240 ± 100
BP and there may be residual heat in the mountain. The volcano has primarily erupted
andesite, with small amounts of
dacite and
basaltic andesite.
Several
archaeological sites occur on the mountain, both on its summit and at its northeastern foot. They were built presumably by the
Inca or
Atacama people for religious and cultural ceremonies, and are among the most important in the region. The mountain is the subject of a number of myths, which view it as the husband of another mountain, the hiding place of Inca or the burial of an Inca king.
Name and importance
The name Licancabur comes from the
Kunza language,[1] where lican means "people" or "town" and cábur/[2]caur, caure or cauri "mountain";[3] it may refer to the archaeological sites at the mountain.[4] The name of the volcano has also been translated as "upper village".[5] Other names are Licancáguar,[2] Licancaur (which is another
orthography),[4] Tata Likanku[6] and Volcán de Atacama.[7]
Licancabur is a 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) high and 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) wide[8] uneroded[20] symmetrical cone[8] with steep slopes.[25] The mountain dominates its surroundings.[26] The summit at 5,916 metres (19,409 ft) elevation[27][c] is capped by a 500 metres (1,600 ft)[20]-400 metres (1,300 ft) wide
summit crater.[30] The 70 by 90 metres (230 ft × 300 ft)[25] freshwater
Licancabur Lake[31] in the crater is one of the highest lakes in the world.[32] The western slopes are better developed than the eastern. The total volume of the volcano is about 35 cubic kilometres (8.4 cu mi)[8] or 44 cubic kilometres (11 cu mi),[33] formed by layers of
lava and
pyroclastics.[27] There are traces of
lahars.[34]
Young-looking[8] black-grey[35]lava flows emanate from the summit crater[27] and surround the cone, reaching distances of 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the summit west of Licancabur.[25] The flows are 10–50 metres (33–164 ft)[20] thick
block lavas,[32] and feature structures like ridges, levees[8] and blocks several metres thick. A
debris avalanche deposit is found on the western side of Licancabur.[20] The slopes of the mountain are notably unstable.[36]
The landscape around the volcano consists of basins separated by mountain chains.[37] At the northeastern foot of Licancabur is
Laguna Verde.[38] The mountain is part of the
drainage divide between the Altiplano and the
Salar de Atacama.[39] Southwest of Licancabur are the Vilama and San Pedro rivers, which flow to San Pedro de Atacama.[40]
The volcanic chain continues north[26] across Portezuelo Chaxas
mountain pass,[50] beginning with
Sairecabur.[38] To the southeast is 5,704 metres (18,714 ft) high[7]Juriques, which formed during the
Pleistocene and has a 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) wide summit crater;[25] the two volcanoes form an offset in the volcanic chain.[51] Farther south next to
Portezuelo del Cajon[24] is
Cerro Toco of the
Purico complex.[19] The Chaxas lava dome was active during the
Pliocene, forming ignimbrites that are now buried under Licancabur.[32]
The climate is cold, dry, windy with low
atmospheric pressure and large day-night temperature differences.[16] On the summit, daytime temperatures range between 5 – −25 °C (41 – −13 °F) and nighttime temperatures between −25 – −40 °C (−13 – −40 °F).[17] Annual mean precipitation at Licancabur is estimated to reach 360 millimetres (14 in), decreasing to 200 metres (660 ft) at its base,[61] but is highly variable in space and time.[62] The
Atacama Desert is one of the driest on Earth.[63] The arid climate is due to
subsidence of air within the
South Pacific Anticyclone, which extends to the Andes.[64] Owing to the dry climate,[65] snow cover on Licancabur is ephemeral[1] and there are no
glaciers.[65] During the local
Last Glacial Maximum the snowline may have decreased to 4,000–4,800 metres (13,100–15,700 ft) elevation[66] but there is no evidence of
glacial activity on Licancabur.[67]Periglacial phenomena occur on Licancabur.[68] The region likely has Earth's highest
insolation rate.[d][71]
Plants growing on Licancabur include grasses,
tola and
yareta at high and
cacti at low elevations.[72][73] There is a vertical structure, with cushion plants and tussocks dominating between 3,850–4,200 metres (12,630–13,780 ft) elevation, widely spaced
shrubs between 2,700–3,100 metres (8,900–10,200 ft), and the highest plant density found between these belts.[29] Some areas are used as
pastures.[74] Isolated
wetlands occur at the foot of the volcano.[75]
The volcano formed mostly during the
Late Pleistocene-
Holocene,[42] and bears no traces of
glacial erosion.[8] There are three generations of
lava flows distinguishable through their appearance and chemistry: The basal unit, which crops out at the western and northeastern foot of the volcano and are the most primitive magmas; the intermediate unit, which forms most of its western and southern sectors; and the upper unit, which forms the central cone and represents the most differentiated magmas.[84] The older flows are found north and west of Licancabur, overlap with flows from Sairecabur[8] and are partly buried by
debris avalanche deposits and
moraines.[46] Activity at Licancabur impacted the environment at Laguna Verde, causing changes in water chemistry.[85]
An
explosive eruption took place at some point, producing
pyroclastic flows.[20] The flank lava flows are the most recent activity.[25] There are no known historical[8] or Holocene eruptions,[86] and the preservation of Inca ruins in the summit crater implies that it has been inactive for 600–1000 years.[27] However, the elevated temperatures of the summit crater lake imply there is still heat in the volcano,[87] and lava flows overran 13,240 ± 100 years old shorelines at Laguna Verde.[85]
Licancabur is considered to be potentially active owing to its good preservation.[67]SERNAGEOMIN deems it a low-hazard volcano, Chile's 68th most dangerous volcano out of 87 as of 2023[update].[88] Future eruptive processes will probably involve the emission of lava or pyroclastic flows from the summit and the flanks of Licancabur, especially the western one. The volcano is remote from inhabited areas and pyroclastic fallout would be of limited extent.[87] Impacts may extend to
Argentina.[89]
Archaeology and religious importance
Prehistoric manmade constructions are widespread on the mountains of the region, including Licancabur and Juriques.[90] The complex on Licancabur includes multiple structures with mostly semicircular or rectangular shapes[91] and a ceremonial platform,[92] all in the eastern part of the crater.[91] The structures may have had had roofs[93] and are built like pircas (no mortar).[94] Reports in 1887[95] and 1955 mention piles of wood.[94] A semicircle of stones surrounding an upright stone has been compared to an altar, ushnu.[96] The summit sites were presumably used for
equinox and
solstice feasts.[97] Notably, no
human sacrifices (capacocha) are associated with Licancabur.[92]
Another site, Tambo de Licancabur[98] or Tambo Licancabur,[99] lies at 4,600 metres (15,100 ft) elevation[100] on the northeastern foot of Licancabur.[101] It consists of over a hundred man-made structures[102] and a 70 metres (230 ft) long public square. More than a hundred people could stay at Tambo de Licancabur,[103] which was not permanently inhabited.[104] Both Inca and local pottery styles have been found there.[105] From Tambo de Licancabur, a zig-zag path led up to the mountain,[106][97] along which there are further Inca structures[107] from which Tambo de Licancabur was visible;[108] today the path is largely destroyed or blocked by
landslides.[97] Tambo de Licancabur has been interpreted either as a site where, during festivities, people who could not ascent the mountain congregated[109] - a
base camp, corpahuasi[110] - or as a tambo, an Inca waystation, on the road between San Pedro de Atacama and Inca territories in present-day Bolivia. This interpretation is not mutually exclusive with the former.[111][101] The whole Licancabur complex was one of the most important in the region,[107] and may have been part of a wider regional religious centre.[112] The archaeological sites on Licancabur are sometimes interpreted to be part of a lookout system for the region,[113][114] or as a symbol of Inca dominance in the San Pedro de Atacama area.[115] The
Inca road passed at the foot of the volcano,[116] making the site easily accessible.[103]
The mountain was worshipped by the
Atacameno[1] and
Inca[101] until the 20th century.[2] Licancabur was important in local cultural rituals,[117] and is to this day used in culturally important events.[118] At least one burial in a local cemetery was oriented to Licancabur.[119]
There are several legends tied to the mountain: The male Licancabur was married to female Quimal in the
Cordillera Domeyko,[90][120] and the two are considered paramount mountains which protect the local communities[121] and fertilize the ground during their
copulation.[122] In the local Atacameno mythology the mountain controls fire (and
San Pedro water),[123] while in
Socaire's mythology it is a source of water.[124] In another myth Licancabur is the tomb of a legless Inca king[125] that was carried around the region in a litter.[126] A final tale says that once, the crater lake had fresh water. When Inca fled from
white people to Licancabur, they hid their treasures. The waters of the lake turned bitter and its colour green.[127] Ascending the mountain was considered
taboo,[2] and the mountain vigorously defends against violations of its summit;[97] allegedly the 1953 Calama earthquake was in retaliation for the ascent of the mountain in that year.[94] Whether there are legends of Inca treasury associated with Licancabur[97] is unclear.[2]
Ascent
The mountain was first ascended by the Inca or the Atacameno people.[94] The first documented ascent was by Severo Titichoca in November 1884,[128] and the first by Westerners in 22 November 1953 by a group of engineers in
Chuquicamata,[2] which reached the summit from the northwest.[2]
Licancabur is frequently climbed from the Bolivian side. It can be ascended year round, although more caution is needed during winter. Ascents take six hours, descents about half that.[127] There is a wide panorama from the summit.[129] Bad weather can develop quickly,[30] and ascending Licancabur is difficult owing to the unstable slopes of the upper cone.[130]
Notes
^The environment around Licancabur may be the closest equivalent to
Mars that exists on
Earth,[16] and present-day conditions at the lakes around Licancabur may resemble these that formerly existed at lakes on
Mars.[17][18]
^Other elevations have been reported,[28][26] including heights exceeding 6,000 metres (20,000 ft).[29]
^Claims that the
UV index at Licancabur can reach values exceeding 40 have drawn scrutiny, as such high UV indices may not be plausible within
Earth's atmosphere[69] even accounting for UV radiation reflected by clouds.[70]
^A species of cuckoo bee has been named after the volcano.[78]
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League City, Texas.
Bibcode:
2003LPI....34.1393C. 1393.
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doi:
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"Mix and match: enhanced Raman spectroscopy instrumentation in field applications". In Hoover, Richard B.; Levin, Gilbert V.; Rozanov, Alexei Y.; Davies, Paul C. (eds.). Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology XI. Vol. 7097. pp. 320–334.
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Godoy, Benigno; Wörner, Gerhard; Le Roux, Petrus; de Silva, Shanaka; Parada, Miguel Ángel; Kojima, Shoji; González-Maurel, Osvaldo; Morata, Diego; Polanco, Edmundo; Martínez, Paula (July 2017). "Sr- and Nd- isotope variations along the Pleistocene San Pedro – Linzor volcanic chain, N. Chile: Tracking the influence of the upper crustal Altiplano-Puna Magma Body". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 341: 172–186.
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González-Maurel, Osvaldo; le Roux, Petrus; Godoy, Benigno; Troll, Valentin R.; Deegan, Frances M.; Menzies, Andrew (November 2019). "The great escape: Petrogenesis of low-silica volcanism of Pliocene to Quaternary age associated with the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of northern Chile (21°10′-22°50′S)". Lithos. 346–347: 105162.
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ISBN978-0-9536087-1-3.
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