The human Y-chromosome accumulates roughly two mutations per generation.[3] Y-DNA haplogroups represent major branches of the Y-chromosome
phylogenetic tree that share hundreds or even thousands of mutations unique to each haplogroup.
The Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor (Y-MRCA, informally known as
Y-chromosomal Adam) is the
most recent common ancestor (MRCA) from whom all currently living humans are descended
patrilineally. Y-chromosomal Adam is estimated to have lived roughly 236,000 years ago in Africa[citation needed]. By examining other
bottlenecks most
Eurasian men (men from populations outside of Africa) are descended from a man who lived in Africa 69,000 years ago (
Haplogroup CT). Other major bottlenecks occurred about 50,000 and 5,000 years ago and subsequently the ancestry of most Eurasian men can be traced back to four ancestors who lived 50,000 years ago, who were descendants of African (
E-M168).[4][5][6][clarification needed]
Y-DNA haplogroups are defined by the presence of a series of Y-DNA SNP
markers.
Subclades are defined by a terminal SNP, the
SNP furthest down in the Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree.[7][8] The
Y Chromosome Consortium (YCC) developed a system of naming major Y-DNA haplogroups with the capital letters A through T, with further subclades named using numbers and lower case letters (YCC longhand
nomenclature). YCC shorthand nomenclature names Y-DNA haplogroups and their subclades with the first letter of the major Y-DNA haplogroup followed by a dash and the name of the defining terminal SNP.[9]
Y-DNA haplogroup nomenclature is changing over time to accommodate the increasing number of SNPs being discovered and tested, and the resulting expansion of the Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree. This change in nomenclature has resulted in inconsistent nomenclature being used in different sources.[2] This inconsistency, and increasingly cumbersome longhand nomenclature, has prompted a move toward using the simpler shorthand nomenclature.
Haplogroup A is the NRY (
non-recombining Y) macrohaplogroup from which all modern paternal haplogroups descend. It is sparsely distributed in Africa, being concentrated among
Khoisan populations in the southwest and
Nilotic populations toward the northeast in the Nile Valley. BT is a subclade of haplogroup A, more precisely of the A1b clade (A2-T in Cruciani et al. 2011), as follows:
The defining mutations separating CT (all haplogroups except for A and B) are M168 and M294. The site of origin is likely in Africa. Its age has been estimated at approximately 88,000 years old,[11][12] and more recently at around 100,000[13] or 101,000 years old.[14]
Haplogroup C1b1a2a (B67) Found among
Lebbo' people in Borneo, Indonesia
Haplogroup C1b1a2b (F725) Found among Han Chinese (Guangdong, Hunan, and Shaanxi), Dai people (Yunnan), Murut people (Brunei), Malay people (Singapore), and Aeta people (Philippines)
Haplogroup C1b1a3 (Z16582) Found with low frequency in Saudi Arabia and Iraq
Haplogroup C1b1b (B68) Found among Dusun people (Brunei)
The groups descending from haplogroup F are found in some 90% of the world's population, but almost exclusively outside of sub-Saharan Africa.
F xG,H,I,J,K is rare in modern populations and peaks in
South Asia, especially
Sri Lanka.[10] It also appears to have long been present in
South East Asia; it has been reported at rates of 4–5% in
Sulawesi and
Lembata. One study, which did not comprehensively screen for other subclades of F-M89 (including some subclades of GHIJK), found that Indonesian men with the
SNP P14/PF2704 (which is equivalent to M89), comprise 1.8% of men in
West Timor, 1.5% of
Flores 5.4% of
Lembata 2.3% of
Sulawesi and 0.2% in
Sumatra.[15][16] F* (F xF1,F2,F3) has been reported among 10% of males in Sri Lanka and
South India, 5% in Pakistan, as well as lower levels among the
Tamang people (Nepal), and in
Iran. F1 (P91), F2 (M427) and F3 (M481; previously F5) are all highly rare and virtually exclusive to regions/ethnic minorities in Sri Lanka, India, Nepal,
South China,
Thailand,
Burma, and
Vietnam. In such cases, however, the possibility of misidentification is considered to be relatively high and some may belong to misidentified subclades of
Haplogroup GHIJK.[17]
Haplogroup G (M201) originated some 48,000 years ago and its most recent common ancestor likely lived 26,000 years ago in the Middle East. It spread to Europe with the
Neolithic Revolution.
Haplogroup H (M69) probably emerged in
Southern Central Asia,
South Asia or
West Asia, about 48,000 years BP, and remains largely prevalent there in the forms of H1 (M69) and H3 (Z5857). Its sub-clades are also found in lower frequencies in Iran, Central Asia, across the middle-east, and the Arabian peninsula.
However, H2 (P96) is present in Europe since the Neolithic and H1a1 (M82) spread westward in the
Medieval era with the migration of the
Roma people.
This section needs expansion. You can help by
adding to it. (September 2016)
Haplogroup I1 Nordid/Nordic Europids (M253) Found mainly in northern Europe
Haplogroup I2 Dinarid/Dinaric Europids (P215) Found mainly in Balkans, southeast Europe and Sardinia save for I2B1 (m223) which is found at a moderate frequency in Western, Central, and Northern Europe.
The only living males reported to carry the basal
paragroup K2* are
indigenous Australians. Major studies published in 2014 and 2015 suggest that up to 27% of
Aboriginal Australian males carry K2*, while others carry a subclade of K2.
This section needs expansion. You can help by
adding to it. (September 2016)
Haplogroup N possibly originated in eastern Asia and spread both northward and westward into
Siberia, being the most common group found in some
Uralic-speaking peoples.
Haplogroup P (P295) has two primary branches:
P1 (P-M45) and the extremely rare
P2 (P-B253).[21]
P*, P1* and P2 are found together only on the island of
Luzon in the
Philippines.[21] In particular, P* and P1* are found at significant rates among members of the
Aeta (or Agta) people of Luzon.[22] While, P1* is now more common among living individuals in
Eastern Siberia and
Central Asia, it is also found at low levels in mainland
South East Asia and
South Asia. Considered together, these distributions tend to suggest that P* emerged from K2b in South East Asia.[22][23]
Q is defined by the SNP M242. It is believed to have arisen in
Central Asia approximately 32,000 years ago.[24][25] The subclades of Haplogroup Q with their defining mutation(s), according to the 2008
ISOGG tree[26] are provided below. ss4 bp, rs41352448, is not represented in the ISOGG 2008 tree because it is a value for an STR. This low frequency value has been found as a novel Q lineage (Q5) in Indian populations[27]
Haplogroup R is defined by the SNP M207. The bulk of
Haplogroup R is represented in the descendant subclade
R1 (M173), which originated on the
Siberia. R1 has two descendant subclades:
R1a and
R1b.
Haplogroup R1b is the dominant haplogroup of Western Europe and is also found sparsely distributed among various peoples of
Asia and
Africa. Its subclade R1b1a2 (M269) is the haplogroup that is most commonly found among modern Western European populations, and has been associated with the
Italo-Celtic and
Germanic peoples.
Haplogroup R1 (M173) Found throughout western Eurasia
Haplogroup R1a (M420) Found in Central Asia, South Asia, and Central, Northern and Eastern Europe, Balkans
^Van Oven M, Van Geystelen A, Kayser M, Decorte R, Larmuseau HD (2014). "Seeing the wood for the trees: a minimal reference phylogeny for the human Y chromosome". Human Mutation. 35 (2): 187–91.
doi:
10.1002/humu.22468.
PMID24166809.
S2CID23291764.
^ Haplogroup K2b (M1221/P331/PF5911) is also known as Haplogroup MPS.
^ Haplogroup K2e (K-M147) was previously known as "Haplogroup X" and "K2a" (but is a sibling subclade of the present K2a).
^K-M2313*, which as yet has no phylogenetic name, has been documented in two living individuals, who have ethnic ties to India and South East Asia. In addition, K-Y28299, which appears to be a primary branch of K-M2313, has been found in three living individuals from India. See: Poznik op. cit.;
YFull YTree v5.08, 2017, "K-M2335", and;
PhyloTree, 2017, "Details of the Y-SNP markers included in the minimal Y tree" (Access date of these pages: 9 December 2017)
^ Haplogroup K2b1 (P397/P399) is also known as Haplogroup MS, but has a broader and more complex internal structure.
^Karmin; et al. (2015).
"A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture". Genome Research. 25 (4): 459–66.
doi:
10.1101/gr.186684.114.
PMC4381518.
PMID25770088. "we date the Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) in Africa at 254 (95% CI 192–307) kya and detect a cluster of major non-African founder haplogroups in a narrow time interval at 47–52 kya, consistent with a rapid initial colonization model of Eurasia and Oceania after the out-of-Africa bottleneck. In contrast to demographic reconstructions based on mtDNA, we infer a second strong bottleneck in Y-chromosome lineages dating to the last 10 ky. We hypothesize that this bottleneck is caused by cultural changes affecting variance of reproductive success among males."
^"Something Weird Happened to Men 7,000 Years Ago, And We Finally Know Why". 31 May 2018. Around 7000 years ago - all the way back in the Neolithic - something really peculiar happened to human genetic diversity. Over the next 2,000 years, and seen across Africa, Europe and Asia, the genetic diversity of the Y chromosome collapsed, becoming as though there was only one man for every 17 women.
^Underhill and Kivisild; Kivisild, T (2007). "Use of Y Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Population Structure in Tracing Human Migrations". Annu. Rev. Genet. 41 (1): 539–64.
doi:
10.1146/annurev.genet.41.110306.130407.
PMID18076332.
^Fagundes, Nelson J.R.; Ricardo Kanitz; Roberta Eckert; Ana C.S. Valls; Mauricio R. Bogo; Francisco M. Salzano; David Glenn Smith; Wilson A. Silva; Marco A. Zago; Andrea K. Ribeiro-dos-Santos; Sidney E.B. Santos; Maria Luiza Petzl-Erler; Sandro L. Bonatto (2008).
"Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas"(PDF). American Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (3): 583–92.
doi:
10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013.
PMC2427228.
PMID18313026. Archived from
the original(PDF) on 2009-03-25. Retrieved 2013-05-22. Since the first studies, it has been found that extant Native American populations exhibit almost exclusively five "mtDNA haplogroups" (A–D and X)6 classified in the autochthonous haplogroups A2, B2, C1, D1, and X2a.7 Haplogroups A–D are found all over the New World and are frequent in Asia, supporting a northeastern Asian origin of these lineages
^Hallast, P.; Batini, C.; Zadik, D.; Maisano Delser, P.; Wetton, J. H.; Arroyo-Pardo, E.; Cavalleri, G. L.; De Knijff, P.; Destro Bisol, G.; Dupuy, B. M.; Eriksen, H. A.; Jorde, L. B.; King, T. E.; Larmuseau, M. H.; Lopez De Munain, A.; Lopez-Parra, A. M.; Loutradis, A.; Milasin, J.; Novelletto, A.; Pamjav, H.; Sajantila, A.; Schempp, W.; Sears, M.; Tolun, A.; Tyler-Smith, C.; Van Geystelen, A.; Watkins, S.; Winney, B.; Jobling, M. A. (2015).
"The Y-Chromosome Tree Bursts into Leaf: 13,000 High-Confidence SNPs Covering the Majority of Known Clades". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 32 (3): 661–73.
doi:
10.1093/molbev/msu327.
PMC4327154.
PMID25468874.
^
abP.A. Underhill, N.M. Myres, S. Rootsi, C.T. Chow, A.A. Lin, R.P. Otillar, R. King, L.A. Zhivotovsky, O. Balanovsky, A. Pshenichnov, K.H. Ritchie, L.L. Cavalli-Sforza, T. Kivisild, R. Villems, S.R. Woodward, New Phylogenetic Relationships for Y-chromosome Haplogroup I: Reappraising its Phylogeography and Prehistory, in P. Mellars, K. Boyle, O. Bar-Yosef and C. Stringer (eds.), Rethinking the Human Evolution (2007), pp. 33–42.
"Y-Haplogroup A Phylogenetic Tree". March 2013. Archived from
the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2013. (chart highlighting new branches added to the A phylotree in March 2013)
Semino O, Passarino G, Oefner PJ, et al. (November 2000). "The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: a Y chromosome perspective". Science. 290 (5494): 1155–59.
Bibcode:
2000Sci...290.1155S.
doi:
10.1126/science.290.5494.1155.
PMID11073453. As
PDF Paper that defined "Eu" haplogroups