The Palestine Liberation Organization was created in 1964 as a paramilitary organization and has sought to conduct foreign relations with states and international organisations since that time.[1] Initially, the PLO established relations with Arab and communist countries. In 1969 the PLO became a member of the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.[4][5] In October 1974, the
Arab League designated the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people".[6] The new status of the PLO was recognised by all Arab League states except Jordan (Jordan recognised that status of the PLO at a later stage). On 22 November 1974,
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3236 recognised the right of the
Palestinian people to
self-determination, national independence, and
sovereignty in
Palestine. It also recognised the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people to the United Nations. By Resolution 3237 on the same date, the PLO was granted
non-State observer status at the United Nations.[7][8] In September 1976, the PLO became a non-state member of the Arab League, and in the same year became a member of the
Non-Aligned Movement.
On 15 November 1988, in support of the
First Intifada, the PLO
declared the establishment of the
State of Palestine, which was widely recognised by many foreign governments,[9] although often statements made were of an equivocal nature[10] – at times referring to the PLO or the State of Palestine or one acting on behalf of the other, or by the generic "Palestine". Many countries and organisations "upgraded" representation from the PLO to the new State, though in practice the same PLO offices, personnel and contacts continued to be used. In February 1989 at the United Nations Security Council, the PLO representative claimed recognition from 94 states.[11][12] Since then,
additional states have publicly extended recognition.
Both the PLO (representing itself, the State of Palestine, or the PNA) and the PNA now maintain an extensive network of diplomatic relations,[13] and participate in multiple
international organisations with status of member state, observer, associate, or affiliate. The designation "
Palestine", adopted in 1988 by the UN for the PLO,[14] is currently also used as reference to the PNA and the State of Palestine by states and international organisations, in many cases regardless of the level of recognition and relations they have with any of these entities.
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which maintain diplomatic relations with the State of Palestine by date:
The
Palestine Liberation Organization maintains a network of missions and embassies,[99] and represents the
Palestinian National Authority abroad.[99][100] Most of the
140 states that have recognised the State of Palestine have elevated the Palestinian representation in their country to the status of embassy.[101] A number of other states have granted some form of diplomatic status to a PLO delegation, falling short of full diplomatic recognition. In some cases, as a matter of courtesy, these delegations and missions have been granted diplomatic privileges,[101] and are often referred to as "embassies" with their heads as "ambassadors".[102]
In the United States, an unofficial PLO information office was established in New York in 1964 and run by Sadat Hassan, who served as Permanent Representative of Yemen to the United Nations.[103] The Palestine Information Office was then registered with the Justice Department as a foreign agent and operated until 1968, when it was closed. The PLO was designated a
terrorist organization by the United States in 1987,[104][105] but in 1988 a presidential waiver was issued which permitted contact with the organization.[106] A PLO office was reopened in 1989 as the Palestine Affairs Center.[107] The PLO Mission office, in Washington D.C., was opened in 1994, and represented the PLO in the United States. On 20 July 2010, the United States Department of State agreed to upgrade the status of the PLO Mission in the United States to "General Delegation of the PLO".[108]
Participation in international organisations
The
State of Palestine is represented in various international organizations as member, associate or observer.
In 1964, the
first summit of the
League of Arab States, held in Cairo in January, resulted in a mandate for the creation of a Palestinian entity.[159][160] Subsequently, in May, the Palestine Liberation Organization was established during a meeting of the Palestinian National Congress in Arab-controlled Jerusalem.[161] The organisation's establishment was formally approved at the Arab League's
second summit, held in Alexandria in October.[162] The PLO was granted full membership in 1976.[163] Its seat was assumed by the State of Palestine following the declaration of independence in 1988.[163][specify]
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
The PLO was accorded full
membership in the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC; now named
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) in 1969;[5] it attended the founding conference, held in
Rabat in September 1969, as an observer.[164] Its seat was assumed by the State of Palestine following the declaration of independence in 1988.[specify] It is also a member of the
Islamic Development Bank, an international financial institution for member states of the OIC.[165][166]
The Palestine Liberation Organization was granted observer status at the
United Nations General Assembly in 1974 through General Assembly Resolution 3237. In the UNGA's
regional groupings, the PLO gained full membership in the Group of Asian states on 2 April 1986.[note 8] Acknowledging the proclamation of the State of Palestine,[168] the UN re-designated this observer to be referred to as "Palestine" in 1988 (General Assembly Resolution 43/177) and affirmed "the need to enable the Palestinian people to exercise their sovereignty over their
territory occupied since 1967".[168][169] In July 1998, the General Assembly adopted a new Resolution (52/250) conferring upon Palestine additional rights and privileges, including the right to participate in the general debate held at the start of each session of the General Assembly, the right of reply, the right to co-sponsor resolutions and the right to raise points of order on Palestinian and
Middle East issues.[170] By this resolution, "seating for Palestine shall be arranged immediately after non-member States and before the other observers."[170] This Resolution was adopted by a vote of 124 in favour, 4 against (Israel, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, United States) and 10 abstentions.[171][172]
Since 2011, Palestinian diplomacy has been centred around the
Palestine 194 campaign, which aims to gain membership for the State of Palestine in the United Nations at its 66th Session in September 2011. It seeks to effectively gain collective recognition for a Palestinian state based on the borders prior to the
Six-Day War, with
East Jerusalem as its capital. In September 2012, the Palestine Liberation Organization submitted a
draft resolution according
non-member observer state status to Palestine,[173][174] which the General Assembly approved on 29 November 2012.[143] The change in status was described by The Independent as "
de factorecognition of the sovereign
State of Palestine".[175]
The vote was a historic benchmark for the
sovereignState of Palestine and its citizens, whilst it was a diplomatic setback for Israel and the United States. Status as an observer state in the UN will allow the State of Palestine to join treaties and
specialised UN agencies, such as the International Civil Aviation Organisation,[176] the Law of the Seas Treaty and the International Criminal Court. It shall permit Palestine to claim legal rights over its territorial waters and air space as a sovereign state recognised by the UN. It shall also provide the citizens of
Palestine with the right to sue for control of their territory in the
International Court of Justice and with the legal right to bring war-crimes charges, mainly those relating to the unlawful Israeli occupation of
the State of Palestine, against Israel in the
International Criminal Court.[177]
After Palestine was granted UN observer status, the UN authorised the PLO to title its representative office to the UN as 'The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations',[178] and Palestine re-titled its name accordingly on postal stamps, official documents and passports,[179][180] whilst it has instructed its diplomats to officially represent '
The State of Palestine', as opposed to the '
Palestine National Authority'.[179] Additionally, on 17 December 2012, UN Chief of Protocol Yeocheol Yoon decided that "the designation of 'State of Palestine' shall be used by the Secretariat in all official United Nations documents",[181] thus recognising the PLO-proclaimed
State of Palestine as being sovereign over the territories of Palestine and its citizens under international law.
The State of Palestine has been a full member of the
Geneva Conventions since 2 April 2014.
In 1989, just one year after the proclamation of the State of Palestine, the Palestine Liberation Organization had tried to accede to the
Geneva Conventions back in 1989, but
Switzerland, as the depositary state, had stated that because the question of Palestinian statehood had not been settled within the international community, it was incapable of recognising Palestine as a "
power" that could accede to the Conventions.[186]
FIFA, IOC (International Olympic Committee) and IPC (International Paralympic Committee)
The PLO currently holds observer status at the
World Health Organization (WHO). It had applied for full membership status as far back as 1989, when the
United States, which provided one-quarter of the WHO's funding at the time, informed the WHO that its funding would be withheld if Palestine was admitted as a member state. Yasser Arafat described the U.S. statement as "blackmail". The PLO was asked to withdraw its application by the WHO director general. The WHO subsequently voted to postpone consideration of the application and no decision on the application has been made yet.[186] John Quigley writes that Palestine's efforts to gain membership in several international organisations connected to the United Nations was frustrated by U.S. threats to withhold funding from any organisation that admitted Palestine.[193] On 31 October 2011, following the admission of Palestine to UNESCO, the Minister of Health Fathi Abu Moghli announced that the PNA would then seek membership at the WHO;[194] however, following reports that that would lead to the defunding of the entire organization by the United States – as the US had done to
UNESCO after it admitted Palestine –, the Palestinian government announced that they would not be seeking membership at WHO at the time.[195] As of 2023, the WHO still refers to the territories claimed by the State of Palestine – the West Bank and Gaza – as "the
Occupied Palestinian Territory".
World Trade Organization (WTO)
In 2022, the State of Palestine was allowed to participate, as an
observer state and under the name "Palestine", of the World Trade Organization's twelfth Ministerial Conference, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland.[196]
International treaties and conventions
The Palestine Liberation Organization, representing the Palestinian National Authority, participates in
trade liberalisation:
The Palestine Liberation Organization and the Palestinian National Authority are jointly[note 13] accepted as party to the international agreements in the
Arab Mashreq:
^
abPalestine Liberation Organization delegation has been IPU observer since the 117th session of the IPU Governing Council in 1975.[112] At various sessions in 1996,[121] 1997[122] and 1998[123] it was decided that the
Palestine National Council does not fulfill the conditions for membership laid down in Article 3 of the IPU Statutes,[123] but in 1998 the rights of the observer delegation of Palestine were strengthened.[124] Following the approval of the amendment to Article 3[125] in 2008 the PNC was accepted as IPU member.[126]
^The PLO participated in UNESCO as observer since 1974.[133] In 1989 an application was submitted for the State of Palestine to become full member.[132] In 2011 UNESCO
accepted the application.[134][135]
^Palestine was accorded membership in
ESCWA pursuant to
ECOSOC Resolution 2089 (LXIII) dated 22 July 1977.[114] Full powers for the signature of the Agreements were issued by the leaders of the
PLO and the
PNA.[206]
^Palestine Liberation Organization originally granted observer status by the IAEA on 23 September 1976.[190] Designation changed to "Palestine" on 29 September 1989,[191] and "State of Palestine" on 28 September 2023.[192]
References
^
abPeleg, Ilan (1998). The Middle East peace process: interdisciplinary perspectives. SUNY Press. p. 124.
ISBN978-0-7914-3541-0. "... foreign policy formation of non-state actors as well as states. ... Since its inception in 1964, the PLO as a non-state actor has exercised a number of roles that approximate those utilized by nation-states."
^
abOrganisation of the Islamic Conference.
"Member States". Archived from
the original on 9 June 2017. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
^al Madfai, Madiha Rashid (1993). Jordan, the United States and the Middle East Peace Process, 1974–1991. Cambridge Middle East Library. Vol. 28. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. p. 21.
ISBN978-0-521-41523-1.
^Tessler, Mark A. (1994). A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict (2nd, illustrated ed.). Indiana University Press, p. 722: "Within two weeks of the PNC meeting, at least fifty-five nations, including states as diverse as the Soviet Union, China, India, Greece, Yugoslavia, Sri Lanka, Malta, and Zambia, had recognized the Palestinian state."
^Crawford, James (1999),
"Israel (1948-1949) and Palestine (1998-1999): Two Studies in the Creation of States", in Goodwin-Gil, G.S.; Talmon, S. (eds.), The Reality of International Law: Essays in Honour of Ian Brownlie, New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, Oxford University Press, pp. 95–100, 110–115 "...Declaration was quite widely recognized by states, although often in equivocal terms"
^Alberto Mario Suárez Durán (8 August 2018).
"Colombia reconoce a Palestina como Estado" [Colombia recognizes Palestine as a State]. El Tiempo (in Spanish). Retrieved 8 August 2018.
^Brownlie, Ian; Goodwin-Gill, Guy S.; Talmon, Stefan; Jennings, Robert (1999). The reality of international law: essays in honour of Ian Brownlie (Illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 121.
ISBN978-0-19-826837-6.: "The PLO, which has been recognized to possess an independent international personality as representative of the Palestinian people, has been delegated the power to act on behalf of the PA in the international arena with regard to specific substantive areas."
^
abTalmon, 1998, p. 158, footnote #236: "It is of interest to note that most States that have recognized the 'State of Palestine' after its proclamation on 15 Nov. 1988 have elevated the PLO office in their country to the status of embassy."
^Government of Ireland.
"Press statement on upgrade of relations"(PDF) (Press release). Archived from
the original(PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011. "The Irish government has upgraded the status of the General Delegation of Palestine in Ireland to the Mission of Palestine, headed by an Ambassador."
^Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (2010).
"ESCWA At a Glance". Archived from
the original on 10 January 2011. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
^Al-Bab (June 2002).
"Palestinian Organisations". Arab Gateway. Archived from
the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2011.: "PLO also contains the ...; Palestinian Red Crescent Soc (established Jord 65, part of PLO from 1969)".
^
abInter-Parliamentary Union.
"THE INTER-PARLIAMENTARY COUNCIL DECIDES ON PALESTINE'S AFFILIATION TO THE IPU". Inter-Parliamentary Union. Retrieved 25 November 2012.: "Palestine National Council...was not created by decision of a Parliament constituted in conformity with the laws of a sovereign State whose population it represents and on whose territory it functions ... does not have legislative power or the right to oversee the action of government."
^Inter-Parliamentary Union.
"AMENDMENTS TO THE STATUTES AND RULES OF THE INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION"(PDF). Inter-Parliamentary Union. Retrieved 25 November 2011.: "Membership - Article 3, add a new Article 3.1 bis as follows: Ibis. The parliament constituted in conformity with the basic law of a territorial entity whose aspirations and entitlement to statehood are recognized by the United Nations, and which enjoys the status of Permanent Observer to that Organization with substantial additional rights and privileges, may also become a Member of the Inter-Parliamentary Union."
^Inter-Parliamentary Union.
"119th ASSEMBLY OF THE INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION AND RELATED MEETINGS, Geneva, 13-15.10.2008". unispal.un.org. Archived from
the original on 16 April 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2011.: "The Governing Council,...conditions laid down in
Article 3 of the Statutes...Considering that...United Nations has on numerous occasions recognized the aspirations and entitlement to statehood of Palestine...
Palestine enjoys the status of Permanent Observer to the United Nations...Considering also that the
current situation on the Palestinian territories impedes the functioning of the
Palestinian Legislative Council and that its participation in the work of the Inter-Parliamentary Union may therefore, for the time being, be facilitated by the
Palestine National Council...Decides to admit the Parliament of Palestine as a Member of the Inter-Parliamentary Union...Annuls...the decisions...at its 117th and 163rd sessions regarding the participation of Palestine as an observer"
^Permanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United Nations.
"Status of Palestine at the United Nations". United Nations. Archived from
the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 9 December 2010.: "On 2 April 1986, the Asian Group of the U.N. decided to accept the PLO as a full member."
^United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2002).
"Government structures". United Nations. Archived from
the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2010.: "At present, the PLO is a full member of the Asian Group of the United Nations".
^Palestine/PLO (being a GA observer only) is not included in the list of
"Members of the General Assembly, arranged in current regional groups"Archived 6 June 2011 at the
Wayback Machine. Further, a recent document of UN-HABITAT, which classifies countries by explicit lists according to the "United Nations Regional Groups" (see:
"UN-HABITAT's Global Report on Human Settlements"Archived 15 May 2011 at the
Wayback Machine (2007), pp. 329-330), along with a more recent document of UN-AIDS - which classifies countries by explicit lists according to the "Regional Groups that are used by the UN General Assembly,
ECOSOC, and its subsidiary bodies" (see:
UNAIDS, The Governance HandbookArchived 9 January 2011 at the
Wayback Machine (2010), pp. 28-29), do not include Palestine/PLO in any Regional Group, but instead write: "the General Assembly conferred upon Palestine, in its capacity as observer, additional rights and privileges of participation. These included the right to participation in the general debate of the General Assembly, but did not include the rights to vote or put forward candidates" (see: UN-HABITAT's Global Report on Human Settlements, p. 335, 2nd footnote; UNAIDS, The Governance Handbook, p. 29, 4th footnote).
^
abPermanent Observer Mission of Palestine to the United NationsArchived 31 January 2013 at the
Wayback Machine: "since ... Vote in the United Nations General Assembly which accorded to Palestine Observer State Status, the official title of the Palestine mission has been changed to The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations."
^
ab"A/67/L.28 of 26 November 2012 and A/RES/67/19 of 29 November 2012". Unispal.un.org. Archived from
the original on 10 December 2012. Retrieved 2 December 2012.: "the Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization, in accordance with a decision by the Palestine National Council, is entrusted with the powers and responsibilities of the Provisional Government of the State of Palestine."
^Sayigh, Yezid (1999). Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (illustrated ed.).
Oxford University Press. p. 624.
ISBN9780198296430. "The Palestinian National Council also empowered the central council to form a government-in-exile when appropriate, and the executive committee to perform the functions of government until such time as a government-in-exile was established."
^International Telecommunication Union (20 October 2010).
"Palestine ITU status". Archived from
the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
^Maintenance Agency for ISO 3166 country codes (2010).
"English country names and code elements". International Organization for Standardization. Retrieved 5 December 2010.{{
cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
link)
^"OIC Member States". Permanent Mission of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference to the United Nations Offices in Geneva and Vienna. Archived from
the original on 11 March 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2009.
^Taylor & Francis group and Lucy Dean, 2003, p. 1328.
^
abUnited Nations; General Assembly (15 December 1988).
"43/177: Question of Palestine". United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine. Archived from
the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^
abMango, Anthony; Osmańczyk, Edmund (2003). Encyclopedia of the United Nations and international agreements. Vol. 4. Routledge. p. 1741.
ISBN978-0-415-93924-9.