Since independence, Indonesian foreign relations have adhered to a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking to play a role in regional affairs commensurate with its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among major powers. During the presidency of
Sukarno, Indonesia's foreign relations were marked by engagement with other newly independent nations in Asia and Africa, as exemplified by the
Bandung Conference, the subsequent foundation of the
Non-Aligned Movement and a confrontational attitude towards Western powers, justified by a belief in the
CONEFO and opposition to what Sukarno termed as NEKOLIM (
Neocolonialism and
Imperialism).[1]
After a
US-backed ouster of Sukarno and left-wing elements in 1965, Indonesian foreign policy underwent a major shift under the
"New Order" government, as President
Suharto moved away from the stridently anti-Western, anti-American posturing that characterised the
latter part of the Sukarno era. Following
Suharto's ouster in 1998, Indonesia's government has preserved the broad outlines of Suharto's independent, moderate foreign policy. Preoccupation with domestic problems has not prevented successive presidents from travelling abroad.
Indonesia managed to play a role as a peacemaker in the
Cambodia–Thailand conflict over the
Preah Vihear temple. Indonesia and other ASEAN member countries collectively have also played a role in encouraging the government of
Myanmar to open up its political system and introduce other reforms more quickly.[2]
Given its geographic and demographic size, rising
capabilities and diplomatic initiatives, scholars have classified Indonesia as one of Asia-Pacific's
middle powers.[3]
Historical issues
The foreign policy of Indonesia has evolved over time and has been shaped by various factors such as its historical context, geographic location, national interests, and leadership. Here is an overview of the historical context of Indonesia's foreign policy:
Founding Principles: Indonesia's foreign policy is rooted in the country's founding principles of Pancasila, which emphasizes peaceful coexistence, mutual respect, and non-interference in the domestic affairs of other countries.[4]
Western New Guinea. The western part of New Guinea was under Dutch colonial rule and known as "West Irian." When Indonesia gained independence from the Netherlands in 1945, the Dutch retained control over West Irian, but Indonesia claimed it. The United Nations supervised the transfer of West Irian to Indonesia in 1963. The region officially became a part of Indonesia in 1969 through a UN-sanctioned referendum known as the Act of Free Choice.[5]
Non-Aligned Movement: After gaining independence from Dutch colonial rule in 1945, Indonesia played a prominent role in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). The NAM was a group of countries that chose not to align with any major power bloc during the Cold War, advocating for a neutral stance and promoting cooperation among developing nations.[6]
Regional Leadership: Indonesia has sought to establish itself as a leader in the Southeast Asian region. It was one of the founding members of the
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) in 1967 and has been actively involved in regional initiatives to promote peace, stability, and economic integration in Southeast Asia.[7]
"Free and Active" Foreign Policy: In the 1950s and 1960s, under the leadership of President
Sukarno, Indonesia pursued a "free and active" foreign policy. This policy aimed at asserting Indonesia's independence and taking an active role in global affairs by participating in international organizations, supporting decolonization movements, and advocating for the rights of developing nations.[8]
Post-Suharto Era: Following the resignation of President
Suharto in 1998, Indonesia experienced political and economic reforms. This period saw a shift in foreign policy priorities, focusing more on economic development, regional cooperation, and democracy promotion. Indonesia also embraced a more pragmatic approach in its foreign relations.[9]
East Timor: In 1975, shortly after East Timor declared independence from Portuguese colonial rule, Indonesia invaded and occupied the territory. The occupation lasted for 24 years and was marked by widespread human rights abuses, violence, and resistance from the East Timorese people. The international community largely condemned the occupation. Various human rights organizations and activists put pressure on Indonesia to leave. In 1999, Indonesia agreed to hold a UN-sponsored referendum to determine its political status. The majority of the East Timorese people voted for independence, leading to widespread violence and destruction orchestrated by pro-Indonesia militias. International peacekeeping forces, led by Australia, restored order. East Timor finally achieved independence in 2002.[10]
Territorial Integrity: Indonesia places great importance on its territorial integrity and has been firm in its stance against any threats to its sovereignty. It has been involved in various territorial disputes, including those in the South China Sea, and has sought to resolve them through peaceful means, including diplomatic negotiations.[11]
Counterterrorism and Maritime Security: Indonesia has actively cooperated with regional and international partners in combating terrorism and ensuring maritime security. It has been affected by terrorist attacks in the past and has taken steps to enhance intelligence-sharing, border control, and counterterrorism efforts.[12]
Economic Diplomacy: With the world's fourth-largest population and a growing economy, Indonesia has focused on economic diplomacy to attract foreign investment, promote trade relations, and strengthen economic ties with other countries. It has pursued partnerships with both developed and developing nations to foster economic growth and development.[13]
Climate Change and Environmental Issues: As a country highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, Indonesia has been actively engaged in international efforts to address environmental issues. It has been a vocal advocate for sustainable development, forest conservation, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.[14]
Global and Regional Multilateralism: Indonesia actively participates in various multilateral organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). It has sought to contribute to global peace, security, and development by engaging in multilateral dialogues and fostering regional cooperation.[15]
Significant international memberships
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
A cornerstone of Indonesia's contemporary foreign policy is its participation in the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),[16] of which it was a founding member in 1967 with
Thailand,
Malaysia,
Singapore, and the
Philippines. Since then,
Brunei,
Vietnam,
Laos,
Myanmar, and
Cambodia also have joined ASEAN. While organised to promote shared economic, social, and cultural goals, ASEAN acquired a security dimension after Vietnam's liberation of Cambodia in 1979; this aspect of ASEAN expanded with the establishment of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, which comprises 22 countries, including the US.
Indonesian national capital
Jakarta is also the seat of ASEAN Secretariat, located at Jalan Sisingamangaraja No. 70A, Kebayoran Baru,
South Jakarta. Other than serving their diplomatic missions for Indonesia, numbers of foreign embassies and diplomatic mission in
Jakarta are also accredited to ASEAN. ASEAN Headquarter has led to the prominence of
Jakarta as a diplomatic hub in Southeast Asia.
In the late 1990s to early 2000s, Indonesia's continued domestic troubles have distracted it from ASEAN matters and consequently lessened its influence within the organisation. However, after the political and economic transformation, from the turmoil of 1998 Reformasi to the relatively open and democratic civil society with rapid economic growth in the 2010s, Indonesia returned to the region's diplomatic stage by assuming its leadership role in ASEAN in 2011. Indonesia is viewed to have weight, international legitimacy and global appeal to draw support and attention from around the world to ASEAN. Indonesia believes that ASEAN can contribute positively to the international community, by promoting economic development and co-operation, improving security, peace, the stability of ASEAN, and making the Southeast Asia region far from conflicts.[2]
Indonesia's bilateral relations with three neighbouring ASEAN members—Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam—are not without challenges. If not appropriately managed, it would result in mutual mistrust and suspicion, thus hindering bilateral and regional co-operation. In the era of rising Indonesia, which might assert its leadership role within ASEAN, the problem could become more significant. Nevertheless, the rise of Indonesia should be regarded in the sense of optimism. First, although Indonesia is likely to become assertive, the general tone of its foreign policy is mainly liberal and accommodating. The consolidation of the Indonesian democratic government played a key role and influence in ASEAN. The second, institutional web of ASEAN will sustain engagements and regular meetings between regional elites, thus deepening their mutual understanding and personal connections.[17]
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
Indonesia also was one of the founders of NAM and has taken moderate positions in its councils. As NAM Chairman in 1992–95, it led NAM positions away from the rhetoric of North-South confrontation, advocating the broadening of North-South co-operation instead in the area of development. Indonesia continues to be a prominent, and generally helpful, leader of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)
Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population and is a member of OIC. It carefully considers the interests of Islamic solidarity in its foreign policy decisions but generally has been an influence for moderation in the OIC.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
Indonesia has been a strong supporter of the
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. Mainly through the efforts of President Suharto at the 1994 meeting in Indonesia, APEC members agreed to implement free trade in the region by 2010 for industrialised economies and 2020 for developing economies. As the largest economy in Southeast Asia, Indonesia also belongs to other economic groupings such as
G20 and
Developing 8 Countries (D-8).
G20 major economies
In 2008, Indonesia was admitted as a member of the
G20, as the only ASEAN member state in the group.[18] Through its membership in the global economic powerhouse that accounted of 85% of the global economy,[18] Indonesia is keen to position itself as a mouthpiece for ASEAN countries, and as a representative of the
developing world within the G20.[19]Bali, Indonesia had played host to the
2022 G20 Summit.
IGGI and CGI
After 1966, Indonesia welcomed and maintained close relations with the international donor community, particularly the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan, through the meetings of the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) and its successor, the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI), which coordinated substantial foreign economic assistance. Problems in Timor and Indonesia's reluctance to implement economic reform at times complicated Indonesia's relationship with donors. In 1992 the IGGI aid coordination group ceased to meet and the coordination activities were transferred to meetings arranged by the World Bank through the CGI. The CGI, in turn, ceased activities in 2007 when the Indonesian government suggested that an internationally organised aid coordination program was no longer needed.
International disputes
Indonesia has numerous outlying and remote islands, some of which are inhabited by numerous pirate groups that regularly attack ships in the
Strait of Malacca in the north,[20] and
illegal fishing crews known for penetrating Australian and Filipino waters.[21] While Indonesian waters itself is the target of many illegal fishing activities by numerous foreign vessels.[22]
Indonesia has some present and historic territorial disputes with neighboring nations, such as:
Ambalat Block in dispute with
Malaysia (ongoing, overlapping EEZ line drawn by both countries)
The Republic of Indonesia established diplomatic relations with Brunei Darussalam on 1 January 1984. Brunei Darussalam was recognised by Indonesia in 1984.
Although they do not share a direct land border, Indonesia and Brunei share the island of
Borneo. Overall relations between the two countries were progressing well and that both sides continued to enjoy strong ties in a wide spectrum of co-operations; including trade and investment, tourism, agriculture, marine and fisheries, health, defence, transnational crimes, education, youth, culture and people-to-people contacts.[150]
Indonesia has an embassy in
Bandar Seri Begawan, while Brunei has an embassy in Jakarta.
The relationship between ancient Indonesia and Cambodia dated back from the kingdom of
Chenla and
JavanSailendra also
Srivijaya; it was mentioned that king
Jayavarman II had resided for some times in Java during the reign of Sailendras, and in 802 declare sovereignty of Cambodia from Java and proclaimed himself as universal monarch thus started the Angkor period.[151]
During the
Sukarno reign in the 1960s, the president of Indonesia has visited Cambodia and vice versa prince
Norodom Sihanouk also visited Indonesia.
In 1992, Indonesia is among the countries that provides troops for
United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia. Indonesia also supported Cambodia membership to ASEAN in 1999. Indonesia also among the countries that provide aid to
Angkor restoration project, especially the three main gates of Angkor Royal Palace archaeological site near
Phimeanakas site. Indonesia is also appointed as observer in
Cambodian–Thai border dispute.[152][153]
Indonesia has an embassy in
Phnom Penh, while Cambodia has an embassy in Jakarta.
Since established diplomatic relations in 1957, both countries enjoy cordial relations. Indonesia has an embassy in
Vientiane, while Laos has an embassy in Jakarta. Indonesia supported and welcomed Laotian membership to ASEAN in 1997. Laos and Indonesia agreed to enhance relations to focus on exploring the potential of both countries to co-operate on trade and investment. The two countries expressed a desire to reach further agreements relating to security, tourism, sport, air transport and education.[154] Indonesia through bilateral co-operation assist Laos on capacity building and development in various sectors, through scholarships and trainings for Laotian students.[155]
Despite fighting each other during the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, Indonesia and Malaysia enjoy friendly relations. The populations of both countries have cordial relations and trade between the two countries has greatly increased over the years.
Indonesia and Malaysia has the same ethnic population that belongs to the Austronesian group and sharing the same language although minor differences in vocabulary.
Currently, both countries are in a territorial dispute over the oil rich islands of
Ambalat. Previously, they were over
territorial disputes over the islands of
Ligitan and
Sipadan, which were won by Malaysia.
The Indonesian migrant workers (
Indonesian: TKI/Tenaga Kerja Indonesia) have become the important issue between both countries. The problems concerning migrant workers such as illegal immigration, crime, human trafficking, abuse, poor treatment and extortion upon migrant workers. Since 2009 Indonesia has temporarily stop sending domestic workers to Malaysia until both countries agree on ways to protect them.[156] Indonesia resumed sending migrant workers to Malaysia in May 2011 as both countries signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) about worker protection by the end of April 2011.[157]
Indonesia and the Philippines are both archipelagic countries dominated by an ethnic population that belongs to the Austronesian group.
Both countries established their bilateral and diplomatic relations in 1949. The Indonesian Government has opened its consular office in
Manila but it was not until the mid-1950s that an embassy was established headed by an ambassador. Indonesia also has a consulate general in
Davao City.[160]
The Philippines has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate general in
Manado.
A treaty of friendship was signed in 1951. This Treaty constituted the basic relationship of both countries, covering several aspects such as maintenance of peace and friendship, settlement of disputes by diplomatic and peaceful means, traffic arrangements for citizens of both countries and activities to promote co-operation in the area of trade and cultural, which include the political, social-economic and security matters of both countries.
Relations with Indonesia are generally good, though current outstanding issues include the bans on the export of sand, and
granite;[162] both of which Singapore's construction industry is reliant on.
Indonesia has an embassy in Singapore.
Singapore has an embassy in Jakarta and consulates general in
Batam and
Medan.[163]
Indonesia and Thailand are viewed as natural allies.[164]
Indonesia is Thailand's third most important trade partner within ASEAN, with bilateral trade worth $8.7 billion in 2007.[165] Trade between the two countries is set to grow over the years.
Following the military takeover of the government in Thailand in May 2014, Indonesia supports the restoration of democracy in Thailand. Indonesia urged the military and civilian elements in Thailand to work together to quickly restore the political situation in Thailand.[166]
Indonesia has an embassy in
Bangkok and a consulate in
Songkhla.
Formal relations started in 1955 for the consulate general level. Soedibjo Wirjowerdojo (former chargé d'affaires of Indonesian Embassy in Peking, China from year of 1953–1955) was appointed to be The First Indonesian Consul General to Vietnam, and located in Hanoi.
President
Megawati Sukarnoputri of Indonesia visited Vietnam in June 2003. At this time the two countries signed a "Declaration on the Framework of Friendly and Comprehensive Cooperation Entering the 21st Century".
In the December of the same year festivities were organized in the respective capital cities to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic ties.
The
Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs officially acknowledged the Jam'iyya Istiqlâl Indonesia on March 22, 1946, as the representative of the self-claimed Indonesian Republican government.
The Prime Minister of Egypt and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cordiality between the two countries on 10 June 1947, beginning both diplomatic relationships.
Indonesia has an
embassy in
Cairo and Egypt has an embassy in Jakarta since February 25, 1950.
The diplomatic relations was officially established in 1965, however it was not until 2013 that both leaders of each countries visited each other's to further the co-operations.
The ancestors of Madagascar people came from Indonesia, sailed across
Indian Ocean, back in early 8th to 9th century CE.[181]
Indonesia has an embassy in
Antananarivo, while Madagascar has not established an embassy in
Jakarta yet.
Malagasy language and
Indonesian language shared similar words, such as hand: ˈtananə (Malagasy), tangan (Indonesian); skin: ˈhulitse (Malagasy), kulit (Indonesian); white: ˈfuti (Malagasy), putih (Indonesian).
Morocco praised Indonesia as a strong democratic nation, and pointed that both countries facing the same challenges of
separatism and
terrorism.[184]
Diplomatic relations were established in 1960. Indonesia has an embassy in
Rabat and a consulate in
Casablanca, while Morocco has an embassy in Jakarta.
both countries are members of the
WTO,
NAM and
OIC.
Indonesia has an embassy in
Maputo, also accredited to
Malawi.[185] Mozambique maintains an embassy in Jakarta, which also serves Malaysia, East Timor, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.[186]
During a visit by Sudanese Foreign Minister Ali Karti to Jakarta in February 2012, both countries have agreed to foster bilateral relations in politics, science, education and economic sectors.[194]
Since the diplomatic relations established in 1956, the bilateral relations between Argentina and Indonesia were becoming increasingly more strategic.[202]
Indonesia is the second-largest destination for Argentine exports to Asia after China, and the largest one in Southeast Asia. While Argentina is South America's second-largest importer of Indonesian products after
Brazil.[202]
Brazil and Indonesia possess the largest tropical rainforest of the world[204] that contains the world's richest
biodiversity, which gave them a vital role in global environment issues, such as ensuring tropical forests protection.[205]
Canada has an embassy in
Jakarta (World Trade Centre I).[209]
Indonesia has an embassy in
Ottawa (55 Parkdale Avenue) and consulates-general in
Toronto (129 Jarvis Street) and
Vancouver (1630 Alberni Street).[210]
Indonesia sees strategic and geographic importance of Panama as their gate to
Central America as well as to reach the
Caribbean region, while Panama has also recognized the strategic importance of Indonesia in
ASEAN.[215]
The United States has important economic, commercial, and security interests in Indonesia. It remains a lynchpin of regional security due to its strategic location astride a number of key international maritime straits, particularly the
Malacca Strait. Relations between Indonesia and the US are positive and have advanced since the election of President Yudhoyono in October 2004. The US played a role in Indonesian independence in the late 1940s and appreciated Indonesia's role as an anti-
communist bulwark during the
Cold War. Cooperative relations are maintained today, although no formal security treaties bind the two countries. The United States and Indonesia share the common goal of maintaining peace, security, and stability in the region and engaging in a dialogue on threats to regional security. Cooperation between the US and Indonesia on counter-terrorism has increased steadily since 2002, as terrorist attacks in Bali (October 2002 and October 2005),
Jakarta (August 2003 and September 2004) and other regional locations demonstrated the presence of terrorist organisations, principally
Jemaah Islamiyah, in Indonesia. The United States has welcomed Indonesia's contributions to regional security, especially its leading role in helping restore democracy in
Cambodia and in mediating territorial disputes in the
South China Sea.
Indonesia reopened its embassy in
Kabul on 14 February 2022. Despite the embassy reopening, the Indonesian government remained not acknowledging the Taliban government.[225]
In January 2018, Indonesian president
Joko Widodo visited Afghanistan.[226]
Indonesia is a country with the world largest
Muslim population, whereas Bangladesh is the fourth largest Muslim country. Indonesia and Bangladesh are partners in the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,
Indian-Ocean Rim Association and the
Developing 8 Countries. Bangladesh has an embassy in
Jakarta, whereas Indonesia has an embassy in
Dhaka. Since the official bilateral relations were established in 1972, both countries enjoy cordial and friendly relations.
China and Indonesia established diplomatic relations on 13 April 1950, which was suspended on 30 October 1967 due to the occurrence of the
30 September event of 1965. Indonesia also supports China on the Diaoyu (Senkaku) issue.
The
bilateral relations began to ease since the 1980s. Foreign Minister
Qian Qichen of China met with President
Suharto and State Minister Moerdiono of Indonesia in 1989 to discuss the resumption of diplomatic relations of the two countries. In December 1989, the two sides held talks on the technical issues regarding the normalisation of bilateral relations and signed the Minutes. Foreign Minister
Ali Alatas of Indonesia visited China on invitation in July 1990 and the two sides issued the Agreement on the Settlement of Indonesia's Debt Obligation to China and the Communique on the Resumption of Diplomatic Relations between the two countries. The two countries issued the "Communiqué on the Restoration of Diplomatic Relations between the Two Countries".
Premier
Li Peng visited Indonesia on 6 August 1990. In his talks with President Suharto, the two sides expressed their willingness to improve relations on the basis of the
Five Principles of Peaceful Co-Existence and the Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference. On 8 August 1990, the Foreign Ministers of China and Indonesia signed a Memorandum of Understanding on the Resumption of Diplomatic Relations. The resumption of formal diplomatic relations between China and Indonesia was announced the same day.
East Timor (officially named the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) and Indonesia share the island of
Timor. Indonesia invaded the former Portuguese colony in 1975 and annexed East Timor in 1976, maintaining East Timor as its 27th province until a
United Nations-sponsored referendum in 1999, in which the people of East Timor chose independence. Following a
United Nations interim administration, East Timor gained independence in 2002.
Despite the traumatic past, relations with Indonesia are very good. Indonesia is by far the largest trading partner of East Timor (Approximately 50% of imports, 2005) and is steadily increasing its share.
Problems to be solved include, East Timor-Indonesia Boundary Committee meetings to survey and delimit land boundary; and Indonesia is seeking resolution of East Timorese refugees in Indonesia.
India had supported Indonesian independence and Nehru had raised the Indonesian question in the
United Nations Security Council.
Indonesia views India as a "distant-cousin" and fellow fighter against colonialism. Indonesia's President Sukarno called for both nations to "intensify the cordial relations" that had existed "for more than 1,000 years" as crystallized in the Treaty of Friendship of March 1951.[230]
India and Indonesia had signed three security agreements in 1956, 1958 and 1960.
India provided military assistance to Indonesia's counterinsurgency campaign in the 1950s.[230]
As part of India's
Look East Policy both countries signed 2005 India-Indonesia Strategic Partnership Agreement which was a milestone in the bilateral relationship of both countries.[230]
India provides support and training for the Indonesian Air Force's Sukhoi fighter jet and pilots.[230]
India has an embassy in Jakarta[231] and Indonesia operates an embassy in Delhi.[232]
Indonesia and Iran are
Muslim-majority countries, despite the differences in its religious orientation. Indonesia has the largest Muslim
Sunni population in the world, while Iran is a predominantly
Shiite nation.[233]
Jakarta had offered to help mediate the
Iranian nuclear dispute,
Jakarta is on good terms with Iran and other Middle East countries, as well as with the West.[235][236]
The two countries established diplomatic relations in 1950 and have signed around 15 agreements to boost bilateral ties. Indonesia has maintained its embassy in Baghdad during various crises, such as the
Iraq-Iran War in the 1980s. However, at the height of the
Iraq War, Indonesia was forced to temporarily closed its embassy in
Baghdad in 2003, and reopen it in June 2011.[237]
In 2003, the Indonesian government and people protested against a US-led military campaign against Baghdad. Over 50,000 Indonesian people crowded the streets of the Indonesian capital, Jakarta, on Sunday, 9 February 2003, to protest the United States' threat of military action against Iraq.[238] After the war ended and Indonesia reopened its embassy in 2011, relations between the two countries have developed at a fast pace. Iraq invited Indonesia's companies to participate in the reconstruction of Iraq.[239]
Traditionally, Indonesia views Iraq as a source of energy resources, such as oil and gas. Iraqi people are familiar with Indonesian exported products such as: tires, soaps, spices, furniture, coal, clothing, palm oil, shoes, paper, automobiles, rubber, and electronic goods.
Indonesia is one of the very few countries that still maintain cordial relations with North Korea, despite international sanctions and isolation applied upon North Korea concerning its
human rights abuses and
nuclear missile program. Indonesia has adopted what it calls a "free-and-active" foreign policy, which allows it to be consistent in counting on both Koreas as friends.
Both countries share a relationship that dates back to the
Sukarno and
Kim Il Sung era in the 60s. Indonesia has an embassy in
Pyongyang, while North Korea has an embassy in Jakarta. both countries are members of the
Non-Aligned Movement.
According to a 2014
BBC World Service Poll, 28% of Indonesians view North Korea's influence positively, with 44% expressing a negative view. This shows a deterioration from previous year's poll where 42% of Indonesians view North Korea's influence positively, with 29% expressing a negative view.[248][249]
South Korea has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate in
Denpasar.[250]
Scale of bilateral trade between two nation is US$14.88 billion.
Both countries have invested in multiple joint military development projects including the KFX/IFX fighter jet.
South Korea firm Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering (DSME) is in final contract negotiations to supply Indonesia with three Type-209 submarines. This will be the largest ever bilateral defence deal valued at US$1.1 billion.[251]
Indonesia and Mongolia established diplomatic relations in 1956.
Mongolia is planning to have a Center of Indonesian Studies, located in
Mongolian National University. This institution will serve as a learning center for Mongolian students, professors and common people wishing to learn various aspects of Indonesian studies, includes language, culture, history, politics and economy.[253]
Mongolian embassy in
Bangkok is accredited to Indonesia.
Indonesia is accredited to Mongolia from its embassy in Beijing, China.
Since diplomatic relations were established in 1960, both countries enjoy friendly and cordial relations, although both parties have not established embassies in each counterparts' capitals. Indonesia only established an honorary consulate in
Kathmandu, while its embassy in
Dhaka,
Bangladesh, is also accredited to Nepal. Nepal on the other hand accredited its embassy in
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia, also to Indonesia. Both the countries have many cultural proximities and similar view on international issues. Both countries are also partners and founding members of the
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
Indonesia and Qatar have both signed a number of
memorandums of understanding in fields like air transport, tourism, and agricultural cooperation.[260]
Indonesia sent the largest
hajj pilgrims among Muslim-majority countries.
The balance of trade is heavily in favour of Saudi Arabia, because of its oil and gas exports to Indonesia.
Migrant worker abuse and
death sentences faced by Indonesian workers in Saudi Arabia are the main problems that strained diplomatic relations between two countries.
Indonesia and Taiwan (ROC) do not have diplomatic relations, both have only an unofficial relationship.
Despite geopolitical constraints, the relations between two countries remain flourished over times, the opportunities for widening and deepening the relations have grown.[263]
In 2020, around 300,000 Indonesians reside in Taiwan.[264]
The diplomatic relations between Indonesia and the United Arab Emirates are important because both share the solidarity as
Muslim-majority countries, and both countries recognize the important role of each counterparts in the region.
Since the diplomatic relations established in 1976, both country enjoy friendly and cordial relationship.
Indonesia has an embassy in
Abu Dhabi, while the United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Jakarta.
Indonesia uses the UAE as the main gate to enter the Gulf and Middle East market, Indonesia's export to UAE is the largest in the Middle East.
The Indonesian government has established the trade and investment representative office to promote its products in the United Arab Emirates and the entire Middle East region.
Islam came to Indonesia through Yemeni merchants, the indigenous ruled by
Hindu kings converted by seeing the modest of Yemenis, Islam spread through trade in the
Nusantara archipelago.
Indonesia is represented in Yemen through its embassy in
Muscat,
Oman.
Bilateral relations between Austria and Indonesia were officially established in 1954.
Austria recognises Indonesia as a stable and reliable partner, and both countries enjoy excellent relations.[273]
The two countries have agreed to expand relations in business, trade and investment,
tourism, culture, environment and
green technology.[274]
Austria has an embassy in Jakarta, while Indonesia has an embassy in
Vienna that is also accredited to
Slovenia as well as the following multilateral organisations:
IAEA, PrepCom CTBTO,
UNODC and
UNOOSA.
Croatia sees Indonesia as one of the largest and the most influential nation in
ASEAN, and recognized its potential as the gate to enter ASEAN markets.[278] Vice versa, Indonesia also recognizes Croatian potential as a strategic gate to penetrate Balkans and
European Union market.[279]
Relations between France and Indonesia have been improving of late, while Indonesia has become increasingly strategic to the government and people of France.
There are 110 French multinational companies operating in Indonesia.[285]
The relations between two countries are important as both are democratic republics and both have significant geopolitical influence in their regions.
The diplomatic relationship between France and Indonesia is also a key element for developing relations between Indonesia and the European Union and between France and ASEAN.[286]
Indonesia and Germany have traditionally enjoyed good, intensive and wide-ranging relations.
Germany and Indonesia, as the largest members of the
European Union and the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), respectively, take similar positions on many issues relating to the development of the two regional organisations.[288]
The Holy See recognised the Republic of Indonesia on 16 March 1950[294]
Official relations were established in 1950 with the status of Apostolic Internunciatur.[295] In December 1965, the status changed to Nunciatur Apostolic.
Both countries have shown a strong desire to improve their relations, especially in intercultural understanding and trade.[302]
Indonesia recognises Italy's strategic location and important role in the
Mediterranean region, while Italy has favoured relations with Indonesia, and sees Indonesia as the leader in
Southeast Asia.[303]
The relations between two countries not only important to bridge the two regional communities;
European Union and
ASEAN, but also vital as intercultural and interfaith dialogue,[304]
Indonesia's reaction to Kosovo's independence has been mixed. Indonesia does not recognize Kosovo's membership in some international organizations, including the
World Bank.[305]
Due to the resemblance of the colors red and white on their flags,[306] the
Monégasque government asked Indonesia to modify its
flag during the International Hydrographic Congress on 29 April 1952.[307]
Both countries have agreed to establish a strategic partnership against poverty and climate change, and also in promoting democracy and tolerance.[309]
Both countries are also members of the
G20 and
APEC.
Early in the
Cold War, both countries had very strong relations with Indonesian president
Sukarno visiting Moscow and Soviet leader
Nikita Khrushchev visiting Jakarta. When Sukarno was
overthrown by
General Suharto, relations between the two states were not as close as they were during Sukarno's times.
In late 2007, Indonesia purchased military weapons from Russia with long term payment.
Serbia has very close relations with Indonesia, especially within the fields of trade, culture and tourism. Indonesia has also voiced support for Serbia's territorial integrity over the Kosovo issue.[316]
Spain identifies Indonesia as a natural ally and has named Indonesia as one of their priority countries in their foreign relations with the Asian region.[318]
Cooperation has expanded to various fields, from trade and culture to education and the defence technology sector.[319]
Since the 1980s, Spain and Indonesia have embarked on a strategic partnership in
aeronautics technology. Spain's
CASA and Indonesia's
IPTN (formerly known as Nurtanio) co-designed and co-produced the
CASA/IPTN CN-235 medium transport aircraft.
In 2010, the heads of state of the two countries agreed to launch negotiations on a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement.[320]
Switzerland has named Indonesia as one of seven priority countries for economic development co-operation.[321]
Indonesia has an embassy in
Bern, while Switzerland has an embassy in Jakarta, also accredited for
East Timor and
ASEAN.
On 6 December 1973, the Indonesian and Swiss governments signed an agreement to establish Polytechnic for Mechanics within the
Bandung Institute of Technology at Bandung.[322] Today, the Swiss Mechanics Polytechnic has transformed into Bandung State Polytechnic for Manufacture.
Indonesia recognised Ukraine's independence on 28 December 1991 and established diplomatic relations on 11 June 1992.
In 2011, the total trade volume between two nations has reached US$1.27 billion, and increased to US$1.32 billion in 2012. The trade balances between two nations is in favour to Ukraine; the Indonesian export value to Ukraine in 2012 was US$548.9 million, while Indonesia's import value from Ukraine for the same year was US$774.1 million.[324]
The United Kingdom and Indonesia have maintained strong links since formal relations were established in 1949.[330] Indonesia has an embassy in
London,[331] the UK has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate in
Denpasar.[332]
The Culture and Tourism Ministry of Indonesia launched a campaign to boost the number of tourists from the UK entering Indonesia.[331] In 2009, 160,000 British tourists visited Indonesia, the aim of the campaign was to boost this number to 200,000.[331]
In March 2010 members of the
House of Lords praised Indonesia for its progress in
democratising society, media freedom and environmental protection.[333] In a meeting with Indonesian MP
Hayono Isman, the Lords stated that they wanted to improve the relationship between the two countries.[333]
Since Indonesian independence, the two countries have maintained mutual diplomatic relations, formalised co-operation (especially in the fields of fisheries conservation, law enforcement, and justice co-operation), a measure of security co-operation, broadening
treaty relationships, co-membership of regional forums, and co-participation in several
multilateral Treaties of significance. Trade between the two countries has grown over the years.
Recent years have seen a deepening of Australia's aid commitment to Indonesia, and Australia has become a popular venue for Indonesian students.[334]
In 2008–09, Indonesia is the largest recipient of Australian aid at a value of AUD462 million.[335]
Having common interests as democracies and neighbours in the
Asia-Pacific region, New Zealand and Indonesia are viewed as natural partners.[336] Both countries are members of
APEC. Indonesia and New Zealand officially established diplomatic relations in 1958, the diplomatic and economic ties have grown stronger ever since. New Zealand has an embassy in
Jakarta and Indonesia has an embassy in
Wellington. Indonesia's commodity exports to New Zealand consist mainly of energy products and minerals as well as lumber and agriculture, while New Zealand's commodity exports to Indonesia mainly consist of
dairy products and meats, such as beef, milk, and cheese.
Indonesia established diplomatic relations with both the Cook Islands and Niue on 13 July 2019 as a move to strengthen its ties with the
Pacific Islands region.[337][338]
Indonesia shares a 760-kilometre (470 mi) border with Papua New Guinea through its
Papua,
Highland Papua and
South Papua provinces. The common border has raised tensions and ongoing diplomatic issues[which?] over many decades.[340]
^Rizal Sukma, "The evolution of Indonesia's foreign policy: an Indonesian view." Asian Survey 35.3 (1995): 304–315
online
^John Saltford, "United Nations involvement with the act of self-determination in West Irian (Indonesian West New Guinea) 1968 to 1969." Indonesia 69 (2000): 71–92.
online
^Lorenz M. Lüthi, "The Non-Aligned Movement and the Cold War, 1961–1973." Journal of Cold War Studies 18.4 (2016): 98–147
online.
^Dewi Fortuna Anwar, Indonesia in ASEAN : foreign policy and regionalism (1994)
^Dewi Fortuna Anwar, "Reinvention in Indonesia's foreign policy strategy." East Asia Forum Quarterly 5#4 (2013)
online.
^Terence Lee, "The armed forces and transitions from authoritarian rule: Explaining the role of the military in 1986 Philippines and 1998 Indonesia." Comparative Political Studies 42.5 (2009): 640–669.
online[permanent dead link]
^James Cotton, East Timor, Australia and regional order: intervention and its aftermath in Southeast Asia (2004)
online.
^Francisco Galamas, "Terrorism in Indonesia: an overview." Research Papers 4.10 (2015)
online[permanent dead link].
^Lili Yan et al. The Indonesian Economy: Trade and Industrial Policies (Taylor & Francis, 2018)
^Mariah Measey, "Indonesia: a vulnerable country in the face of climate change." Global Majority E-Journal 1.1 (2010): 31–45.
onlineArchived 20 January 2022 at the
Wayback Machine
^Ralf Emmers, "The role of middle powers in Asian multilateralism." Asia Policy 25.4 (2018): 42–47
extract.
^Dewi Fortuna Anwar (2010), "The Impact of Domestic and Asian Regional Changes on Indonesian Foreign Policy", Southeast Asian Affairs, 2010: 132,
JSTOR41418562
^News from Hsinhua News Agency Daily bulletin · Issues 834-847. 1960. p. 65. ...Indonesia , Guinea to exchange ambassadors Conakry, April twentyseventh Chsinhua) - Indonesia and the Republic of Guinea decided to establish diplomatic relations at the ambassadorial level ...
^Breffni O'Rourke (12 May 2006).
"Iran finds an ally in Indonesia". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 20 May 2006. Retrieved 3 June 2013.{{
cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
link)
^Yanto Soegiarto (3 January 2012).
"Austria's green power". thejakartaglobe.com. Jakarta Globe. Archived from
the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
^"Cook Islands establish diplomatic relations with Indonesia". Pacific Islands News Association. 14 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2019. Joint communiques play a significant role in relations between states, as they are affirmation of recognition by each state of each other's political and economic sovereignty as states and signify commitment by both states to promote cooperation on the basis of equality, mutual respect for each other's sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity as well as non-interference in the internal affairs of each other, guided by the principles and purposes of the Charter of the United Nations and the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961.
He, Kai. "Indonesia's foreign policy after Soeharto: international pressure, democratization, and policy change." International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 8.1 (2007): 47–72.
online
Huijgh, Ellen. "The Public Diplomacy of Emerging Powers Part 2: The Case of Indonesia." in CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy (2016).
online
Lee, Terence. "The armed forces and transitions from authoritarian rule: Explaining the role of the military in 1986 Philippines and 1998 Indonesia." Comparative Political Studies 42.5 (2009): 640–669.
online[permanent dead link]
McRae, Fave. "Indonesia's South China Sea diplomacy: A foreign policy illiberal turn?" Journal of Contemporary Asia 49.5 (2019): 759–779
online.
Pitsuwan, Fuadi (2014). "Smart Power Strategy: Recalibrating Indonesian Foreign Policy". Asian Politics & Policy. 6 (2): 237–266.
doi:
10.1111/aspp.12107.
Ricklefs, M. C. A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1200 (2001)
online
Saltford, John. "United Nations involvement with the act of self-determination in West Irian (Indonesian West New Guinea) 1968 to 1969." Indonesia 69 (2000): 71–92.
online
Scott, David. "Indonesia grapples with the Indo-Pacific: Outreach, strategic discourse, and diplomacy." Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 38.2 (2019): 194–217.
online
Shekhar, Vibhanshu. Indonesia's Foreign Policy and Grand Strategy in the 21st Century: Rise of an Indo-Pacific Power (2018)
Sukma, Rizal. "The evolution of Indonesia's foreign policy: an Indonesian view." Asian Survey 35.3 (1995): 304–315.
online
Sukma, Rizal. "Soft power and public diplomacy: The case of Indonesia." in Public diplomacy and soft power in East Asia (2011): 91–115.
Weinstein, Franklin B. Indonesia Abandons Confrontation: An Inquiry Into the Functions of Indonesian Foreign Policy (2009)