In
human nutrition, empty calories are those
calories found in foods and beverages (including alcohol)[1] composed primarily or solely of calorie-rich
macronutrients such as
sugars and
fats, but little or no
micronutrients,
fibre, or
protein. [2] Foods composed mostly of empty calories have low
nutrient density, meaning few other nutrients relative to their energy content.[3] Empty calories are more difficult to fit into a diet that is both
balanced and within
TDEE, and so readily create an unhealthy diet.[4]
Research
The lack of complete nutrition found in high energy foods was first scientifically tested by French physiologist
François Magendie, who experimented on
dogs and described the process in his book Précis élémentaire de Physiologie. He demonstrated that the eating of nothing but sugar, olive oil, or butter could be the cause of the death of his test animals within 30 to 40 days.[5]
Examples
The following foods are often considered[6][7][8][9] to contain mostly empty calories and commonly lead to body weight gain.
Alcohol: such as
beer,
wine,
spirits, and other alcoholic beverages. While moderate amounts can lead to body weight gain, chronic consumption of large amounts of alcohol can lead to body weight loss because
alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is characterized by an increased
metabolic rate and impaired muscle protein synthesis, resulting in
sarcopenia.[10]
Impact on other nutrients
A diet high in added sugar typically alters behavior to reduce consumption of foods that contain essential nutrients. One study reported that when there was increased consumption of added sugars, nutrients at most risk for deficiency were
magnesium and
vitamins A,
C,
E. Intake of these nutrients dropped with each 5% increase in added sugar intake.[11]
A diet high in alcohol can have the same effect, although in this case the nutrients at particular risk of deficiency are
zinc,
vitamin D,
thiamine,
folate,
cyanocobalamin, and
selenium. People with ALD also develop
sarcopenia, but it is not clear if this is due to chronic low protein intake or the disease, which is known to inhibit muscle protein synthesis.[10]
Threshold for health impact
Typically, 90% of energy is expended simply to maintain current weight while idle,[12] but in extremely active individuals physical exercise must be balanced with food intake to maintain healthy body weight.
Sedentary individuals and those
eating less to lose weight will be subject to malnutrition if they eat food primarily composed of empty calories.[13][14] In contrast, people who engage in heavier physical activity need more food energy as fuel and can have a larger amount of calorie-rich, essential nutrient-poor foods.
Dietitians and other healthcare professionals can prevent malnutrition by designing eating programs and recommending dietary modifications according to each patient's needs.[15][16]
The USDA advises the following levels of empty calorie consumption as an upper limit for individuals who engage in 30 minutes or less of
moderate exercise daily.[17]
^Marriott BP, Olsho L, Hadden L, Connor P (2010). "Intake of added sugars and selected nutrients in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006". Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 50 (3): 228–58.
doi:
10.1080/10408391003626223.
PMID20301013.
S2CID205689533.