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Central African Republic Civil War
Current military situation in Central African Republic
(For a detailed map of the current military situation, see
here)
Date
10 December 2012 – present (11 years, 4 months, 2 weeks and 1 day)
De facto split between ex-Séléka factions controlled north and east and Anti-balaka controlled south and west with a Séléka faction declaring the
Republic of Logone.[14]
The Central African Republic Civil War is an ongoing civil war in the
Central African Republic (CAR) involving the government, rebels from the Séléka coalition, and Anti-balaka militias.
In the preceding
Central African Republic Bush War (2004–2007), the government of President
François Bozizé fought with rebels until a peace agreement in 2007. The current conflict arose when a new coalition of varied rebel groups, known as Séléka, accused the government of failing to abide by the peace agreements,[32] captured many towns in 2012 and seized the capital in 2013.[33] Bozizé fled the country,[34] and the rebel leader
Michel Djotodia declared himself President.[35]Renewed fighting began between Séléka and militias opposed to them called
Anti-balaka.[36] In September 2013, President Djotodia disbanded the Séléka coalition, which had lost its unity after taking power, and resigned in 2014.[37][38] He was replaced by
Catherine Samba-Panza,[39] but the conflict continued.[40] In July 2014, ex-Séléka factions and Anti-balaka representatives signed a ceasefire agreement.[41] By the end of 2014, the country was de facto partitioned with the Anti-Balaka controlling the south and west, from which most
Muslims had evacuated, and ex-Séléka groups controlling the north and east.[42]Faustin-Archange Touadéra, who was elected president in 2016, ran and won the 2020 election, which triggered the main rebel factions to form an alliance opposed to the election called the
Coalition of Patriots for Change, which was coordinated by former President Bozizé.[43] Peacekeeping largely transitioned from the
ECCAS led MICOPAX to the
African Union led
MISCA to the
United Nations led
MINUSCA, while the
French peacekeeping mission was known as
Operation Sangaris.
Much of the tension is over religious identity between
MuslimSéléka fighters and
ChristianAnti-balaka, and ethnic differences among ex-Séléka factions, and historical antagonism between agriculturalists, who largely comprise Anti-balaka, and nomadic groups, who constitute most Séléka fighters.[44] Other contributing factors include the struggle for control of diamonds and other resources in the resource-rich country and for influence among regional powers such as
Chad,
Sudan and
Rwanda and international powers such as
France and
Russia. More than 1.1 million people have fled their homes in a country of about 5 million people, the highest ever recorded in the country.[45]
On 13 April 2007, a peace agreement between the government and the
UFDR was signed in
Birao. The agreement provided for an amnesty for the UFDR, its recognition as a political party, and the integration of its fighters into the army.[51][52] Further negotiations resulted in a
Libreville Global Peace Accord agreement in 2008 for reconciliation, a unity government, local elections in 2009 and parliamentary and presidential elections in 2010.[53] The new unity government that resulted was formed in January 2009.[54] On 12 July 2008, with the waning of the
Central African Republic Bush War, the larger overlapping regional economic community to CEMAC called the
Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), replaced FOMUC, whose mandate was largely restricted to security, with the Central African Peacebuilding Mission (MICOPAX), who had a broader peace building mandate.[46]
Rebel groups alleged that
Bozizé had not followed the terms of the 2007 agreement and that there continued to be political abuses, especially in the northern part of the country, such as "torture and illegal executions".[55]
In August 2012 a peace agreement was signed between the government and the
CPJP.[56] On 20 August 2012, an agreement was signed between a dissident faction of the CPJP, led by Colonel
Hassan Al Habib calling itself
Fundamental CPJP, and the
Patriotic Convention for Saving the Country (CPSK).[57] Al Habib announced that, in protest of the peace agreement, the Fundamental CPJP was launching an offensive dubbed "Operation
Charles Massi", in memory of the CPJP founder who was allegedly tortured and murdered by the government, and that his group intended to overthrow
Bozizé.[58][59] In September, Fundamental CPJP, using the French name Alliance CPSK-CPJP, took responsibility for attacks on the towns of
Sibut,
Damara and
Dekoa, killing two members of the army.[60][61] It claimed that it had killed two additional members of the
Central African Armed Forces (FACA) in
Damara, capturing military and civilian vehicles, weapons including rockets, and communications equipment, and launched unsuccessful assault on a fourth town,
Grimari, and promised more operations in the future.[62]Mahamath Isseine Abdoulaye, president of the pro-government CPJP faction, countered that the CPJP was committed to the peace agreement and the attacks were the work of
Chadian rebels, saying this group of "thieves" would never be able to march on
Bangui. Al Habib was killed by
FACA on 19 September in Daya, a town north of
Dekoa.[63]
In November 2012, in
Obo,
FACA soldiers were injured in an attack attributed to Chadian
Popular Front for Recovery rebels.[64] On 10 December 2012, the rebels seized the towns of
N'Délé,
Sam Ouandja and
Ouadda, as well as weapons left by fleeing soldiers.[65][66][67] On 15 December, rebel forces took
Bamingui, and three days later they advanced to
Bria, moving closer to
Bangui. The Alliance CPSK-CPJP for the first time used the name
Séléka (meaning "union" in the
Sango language) with a press release calling itself "Séléka CPSK-CPJP-UFDR", thus including the
Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR).[68] The Séléka claim they are fighting because of a lack of progress after a peace deal ended the
Bush War.[69] Following an appeal for help from Central African President
François Bozizé, the
President of Chad,
Idriss Déby, pledged to send 2,000 troops to help quell the rebellion.[70][71] The first
Chadian troops arrived on 18 December 2012 to reinforce the
CAR contingent in
Kaga-Bandoro, in preparation for a counter-attack on
N'Délé. Séléka forces took
Kabo on 19 December, a major hub for transport between Chad and CAR, located west and north of the areas previously taken by the rebels.[72] On 18 December 2012, the Chadian group
Popular Front for Recovery (FPR)[73] announced their allegiance to the Séléka coalition. On 20 December 2012, a rebel group based in northern CAR, the
Democratic Front of the Central African People (FDPC) joined the Séléka coalition.[74] Four days later the rebel coalition took over
Bambari, the country's third largest town,[75] followed by
Kaga-Bandoro on 25 December.[76] Rebel forces reached
Damara, bypassing the town of
Sibut where around 150 Chadian troops were stationed together with CAR troops that withdrew from Kaga-Bandoro.
On 26 December, hundreds of protesters surrounded the
French embassy accusing the former colonial power of failing to help the army.[77]Josué Binoua, the
CAR's minister for territorial administration, requested that France intervenes in case the rebels, now only 75 km (47 mi) away, manage to reach the capital
Bangui.[78] On 27 December,
Bozizé asked the international community for assistance. French President
François Hollande rejected the appeal, saying that French troops would only be used to protect French nationals in CAR, and not to defend Bozizé's government. Reports indicated that the
U.S. military was preparing plans to evacuate "several hundred" American citizens, as well as other nationals.[79][80]Gabonese General
Jean-Félix Akaga, commander of the
Economic Community of Central African States' (ECCAS) Multinational Force of Central Africa (FOMAC), said the capital was "fully secured" by the troops from its
MICOPAX peacekeeping mission, adding that reinforcements should arrive soon. However, military sources in
Gabon and
Cameroon denied the report, claiming no decision had been taken regarding the crisis.[81]
Government soldiers launched a counterattack against rebel forces in
Bambari on 28 December, leading to heavy clashes, according to a government official. Several witnesses over 60 km (37 mi) away said they could hear detonations and heavy weapons fire for a number of hours. Later, both a rebel leader and a military source confirmed the military attack was repelled and the town remained under rebel control. At least one rebel fighter was killed and three were wounded in the clashes, and the military's casualties were unknown.[82]
Meanwhile, the foreign ministers in the
ECCAS announced that more troops from the Multinational Force for Central Africa (FOMAC) would be sent to the country to support the 560 members of the MICOPAX mission already present. The announcement was done by
Chad's Foreign Minister
Moussa Faki after a meeting in the
Gabonese capital
Libreville. At the same time, ECCAS Deputy Secretary-General
Guy-Pierre Garcia confirmed that the rebels and the
CAR government had agreed to unconditional talks, with the goal to get to negotiations by 10 January at the latest. In
Bangui, the
U.S. Air Force evacuated around 40 people from the country, including the
American ambassador. The
International Committee of the Red Cross also evacuated eight of its foreign workers, though local volunteers and 14 other foreigners remained to help the growing number of displaced people.[83]
Rebel forces took over the town of
Sibut without firing a shot on 29 December, as at least 60 vehicles with
CAR and
Chadian troops retreated to
Damara, the last city standing between
Séléka and the capital. In
Bangui, the government ordered a 7 pm to 5 am
curfew and banned the use of
motorcycle taxis, fearing they could be used by rebels to infiltrate the city. Residents reported many shop-owners had hired groups of armed men to guard their property in anticipation of possible looting, as thousands were leaving the city in overloaded cars and boats. The
French military contingent rose to 400 with the deployment of 150 additional
paratroopers sent from
Gabon to
Bangui M'Poko International Airport. French Prime Minister
Jean-Marc Ayrault again stressed that the troops were only present to "protect French and European nationals" and not deal with the rebels.[84][85]
Foreign troops and ceasefire agreement
On 30 December, President
Bozizé agreed to a possible national unity government with members of the
Séléka coalition.[24] On 2 January 2013, the president took over as the new head of the defense ministry from his son and dismissed army chief
Guillaume Lapo.[86] Meanwhile, rebel spokesman Col.
Djouma Narkoyo confirmed that Séléka had stopped their advance and will enter peace talks due to start in
Libreville on 8 January, on the precondition that government forces stop arresting members of the
Gula tribe. The rebel coalition confirmed it would demand the immediate departure of President Bozizé, who had pledged to see out his term until its end in 2016. By 1 January reinforcements from FOMAC began to arrive in
Damara to support the 400
Chadian troops already stationed there as part of the MICOPAX mission. With rebels closing in on the capital
Bangui, a total of 360 soldiers were sent to boost the defenses of Damara –
Angola,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, 120 each from
Gabon,
Republic of the Congo and
Cameroon, with a Gabonese general in command of the force.[87]Jean-Félix Akaga, the Gabonese general in charge of the
MICOPAX force, sent by the
ECCAS, declared that Damara represented a "red line that the rebels cannot cross", and that doing so would be "a declaration of war" against the 10 members of the regional bloc.
France had further boosted its presence in the country to 600 troops.[87] On 6 January,
South African President
Jacob Zuma announced the deployment of 400 troops to
CAR to assist the forces already present there.[88]
On 11 January 2013, a ceasefire agreement was signed in
Libreville,
Gabon.[citation needed] On 13 January,
Bozizé signed a decree that removed Prime Minister
Faustin-Archange Touadéra from power, as part of the agreement with the rebel coalition.[89] The rebels dropped their demand for President
François Bozizé to resign, but he had to appoint a new
prime minister from the opposition by 18 January 2013.[55] On 17 January,
Nicolas Tiangaye was appointed Prime Minister.[90] The terms of the agreement also included that
National Assembly of the Central African Republic be dissolved within a week with a year-long coalition government formed in its place and a new
legislative election be held within 12 months (with the possibility of postponement).[91] In addition, the temporary coalition government had to implement judicial reforms, amalgamate the rebel troops with the Bozizé government's troops to establish a new national military, set up the new legislative elections, as well as introduce other social and economic reforms.[91] Furthermore, Bozizé's government was required to free all political prisoners imprisoned during the conflict, and foreign troops must return to their countries of origin.[55] Under the agreement,
Séléka rebels were not required to give up the cities they have taken or were then occupying, allegedly as a way to ensure that the Bozizé government would not renege on the agreement.[55] Bozizé would be allowed to remain president until new presidential elections in 2016.[92]
On 23 January 2013, the ceasefire was broken, with the government blaming
Séléka[93] and Séléka blaming the government for allegedly failing to honor the terms of the power-sharing agreement.[94] By 21 March, the rebels had advanced to
Bouca, 300 km from the capital
Bangui.[94] On 22 March, the fighting reached the town of
Damara, 75 km from the capital.[95][96]
On 18 March 2013, the rebels, having taken over
Gambo and
Bangassou, threatened to take up arms again if their demands for the release of political prisoners, the integration of their forces into the national army and for
South African soldiers to leave the country were not met within 72 hours.[97] Three days later, they took control of the towns of
Damara and
Bossangoa.[98] By 23 March, they entered
Bangui.[99][100][101] On 24 March, rebels reached the
Presidential Palace in the centre of the capital.[102][103] The Presidential Palace and the rest of the capital soon fell to rebel forces and
Bozizé fled to the
Democratic Republic of the Congo,[34][104][105] which was followed by widespread looting in the capital.[104][106] By 2 April, only 20 of the original 200
South African National Defence Force troops stationed in
CAR remained in the country.[107] A company of
French troops secured
Bangui M'Poko International Airport[108] and France sent 350 soldiers to ensure the security of its citizens, bringing the total number of French troops in CAR to nearly 600.[104][109] On 25 March 2013,
Séléka leader
Michel Djotodia, who served after the January agreement as First Deputy Prime Minister for National Defense, declared himself President, becoming the first
Muslim to ever hold the office.[110] Djotodia said that there would be a three-year transitional period and that
Nicolas Tiangaye would continue to serve as Prime Minister.[111] Djotodia promptly suspended the constitution and dissolved the government, as well as the National Assembly.[112] He then reappointed Tiangaye as Prime Minister on 27 March 2013.[113][114]
In the following two days top military and police officers met with
Djotodia and recognized him as president on 28 March 2013, in what was viewed as "a form of surrender",[115] and the overall security situation was beginning to improve.[116] A new government headed by
Tiangaye, with 34 members, appointed on 31 March 2013, included nine members of
Séléka, along with eight representatives of the parties that had opposed
Bozizé, while only one member of the government was associated with Bozizé,[117][118] and 16 positions were given to representatives of civil society. The former opposition parties declared on 1 April that they would boycott the government to protest its domination by Séléka, arguing that the 16 positions given to representatives of civil society were in fact "handed over to Séléka allies disguised as civil society activists".[119]
On 3 April 2013, African leaders meeting in
Chad declared that they did not recognize
Djotodia as president; instead, they proposed the formation of an inclusive transitional council and the holding of new elections in 18 months, rather than three years as envisioned by Djotodia. Speaking on 4 April, Information Minister
Christophe Gazam Betty said that Djotodia had accepted the proposals of the African leaders; however, he suggested that Djotodia could remain in office if he were elected to head the transitional council.[120] Djotodia accordingly signed a decree on 6 April for the formation of a transitional council that would act as a transitional parliament. The council was tasked with electing an interim president to serve during an 18-month transitional period leading to new elections.[121]
The transitional council, composed of 105 members, met for the first time on 13 April 2013 and immediately elected
Djotodia as interim President; there were no other candidates.[122] A few days later, regional leaders publicly accepted Djotodia's transitional leadership, but, in a symbolic show of disapproval, stated that he would "not be called President of the Republic, but Head of State of the Transition". According to the plans for the transition, Djotodia would not stand as a candidate for president in the election that would conclude the transition.[123][124]
On 13 September 2013,
Djotodia formally disbanded
Séléka, which he had lost effective control of once the coalition had taken power. This had little actual effect in stopping abuses by the militia soldiers who were now referred to as Ex-Séléka.[125] Self-defense militias called
Anti-balaka previously formed to fight crime on a local level, had organized into militias against abuses by Séléka soldiers. On 5 December 2013, called "A Day That Will Define Central African Republic", the Anti-balaka militias coordinated an attack on
Bangui against its
Muslim population, killing more than 1,000 civilians, in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow Djotodia.[126]
Interim President
Michel Djotodia and Prime Minister
Nicolas Tiangaye resigned on 10 January 2014[129] yet the conflict still continued.[130] The National Transitional Council elected the new interim president of the
Central African Republic after
Alexandre-Ferdinand Nguendet became the Acting Chief of State. Nguendet, being the president of the provisional parliament and viewed as being close to Djotodia, did not run for the election under diplomatic pressure.[131] On 20 January 2014,
Catherine Samba-Panza, the mayor of
Bangui, was elected as the interim president in the second round voting.[39] Samba-Panza was viewed as having been neutral and away from clan clashes. Her arrival to the presidency was generally accepted by both the
Ex-Séléka and the
Anti-balaka sides. Following the election, Samba-Panza made a speech in the parliament appealing to the Ex-Séléka and the Anti-balaka for putting down their weapons.[132]
Ex-Séléka and Anti-balaka fighting (2014–2020)
On 27 January,
Séléka leaders left
Bangui under the escort of
Chadian peacekeepers.[133] The aftermath of
Djotodia's presidency was said to be without law, a functioning police and courts[134] leading to a wave of violence against
Muslims.
The
European Union decided to set up its first military operations in six years when foreign ministers approved the sending of up to 1,000 soldiers to the country by the end of February, to be based around
Bangui.
Estonia promised to send soldiers, while
Lithuania,
Slovenia,
Finland,
Belgium,
Poland and
Sweden were considering sending troops;
Germany,
Italy and
Great Britain announced that they would not send soldiers.[135] The
UN Security Council unanimously voted to approve sending European Union troops and to give them a mandate to use force, as well as threatening sanctions against those responsible for the violence. The E.U. had pledged 500 troops to aid
African and
French troops already in the country. Specifically the resolution allowed for the use of "all necessary measures" to protect civilians.[136] The first batch of 55
EUFOR troops arrived in
Bangui, according to the French army, and carried out its first patrol on 9 April with the intention of "maintaining security and training local officers". On 15 February, France announced that it would send an additional 400 troops to the country. French President
François Hollande's office called for "increased solidarity" with the
CAR and for the United Nations Security Council to accelerate the deployment of peacekeeping troops to the CAR.[137]Ban Ki-moon then also called for the rapid deployment of 3,000 additional international peacekeepers.[138] Because of increasing violence, on 10 April 2014, the UN Security Council transferred MISCA to a UN peacekeeping operation called the
Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA) with 10,000 troops, to be deployed in September that year.[128] MINUSCA drew figurative "red lines" on the roads to keep the peace among rival militias.[139] France called for a vote at the
UNSC in April 2014 and expected a unanimous resolution authorising 10,000 troops and 1,800 police to replace the over 5,000
African Union soldiers on 15 September;[140] the motion was then approved.[141] After an incident where civilians were killed that involved
Chadian soldiers, Chad announced the withdrawal of its forces from MISCA in April 2014.[8]
As UN Secretary-General
Ban Ki-moon warned of a de facto partition of the country into
Muslim and
Christian areas as a result of the sectarian fighting,[142] he also called the conflict an "urgent test" for the
UN and the region's states.[143]Amnesty International blamed the
Anti-balaka militia of causing a "Muslim exodus of historic proportions."[144]Samba-Panza suggested poverty and a failure of governance was the cause of the conflict.[145] Some Muslims of the country were also weary of the French presence in MISCA, with the
French accused of not doing enough to stop attacks by Christian militias. One of the cited reasons for the difficulty in stopping attacks by Anti-balaka militias was the mob nature of these attacks.[146]
After three days of talks, a ceasefire was signed on 24 July 2014 in
Brazzaville,
Republic of the Congo.[147] The
Séléka representative was General Mohamed Moussa Dhaffane,[147] and the Anti-balaka representative was
Patrick Edouard Ngaïssona.[148] The talks were mediated by
Congolese presidentDenis Sassou Nguesso and
South Sudanese diplomat
Albino Aboug.[148] The Séléka delegation had pushed for a formalization of the partition of the
Central African Republic with
Muslims in the north and
Christians in the south but dropped that demand in talks.[149] Many factions on the ground claimed the talks were not representative and fighting continued[149] with Séléka's military leader
Joseph Zoundeiko rejected the ceasefire agreement the next day saying it lacked input from his military wing and brought back the demand for partition.[150] Ngaïssona told a general assembly of Anti-balaka fighters and supporters to lay down their arms and that Anti-balaka would be turned into a political party called Central African Party for Unity and Development (PCUD) but he had little control over the loose network of fighters.[151] In May 2015, a national reconciliation conference organized by the transitional government of the Central Africa Republic took place. This was called the
Bangui National Forum. The forum resulted in the adoption of a Republican Pact for Peace, National Reconciliation and Reconstruction and the signature of a Disarmament, Demobilisation, Rehabilitation and Repatriation (DDRR) agreement among 9 of 10 armed groups.[152]
Since 2014, there has been little government control outside of the capital.[42] Armed entrepreneurs have carved out personal fiefdoms in which they set up checkpoints, collect illegal taxes, and take in millions of dollars from the illicit coffee, mineral, and timber trades.[42] At least 14 armed groups vied for territory, notably four factions formed by Ex-Séléka leaders who controlled about 60% of the country's territory.[158] In January 2015, talks in
Nairobi between Joachim Kokate representing the Anti-balaka and
Djotodia and
Adam of FPRC led to another ceasefire agreement where they called for amnesty for all perpetrators of abuses and the removal of the current transitional authorities. The transitional government and the international community dismissed the deal as it excluded them from the negotiations and termed the parties "Nairobists".[125][159] By October 2015,
Samba-Panza accused the Nairobists of plotting a coup and dozens of FPRC combatants even walked from the north-east of the country to
Sibut, a few kilometres from the capital, threatening the transitional authorities, but were stopped by international forces.[125] With the de facto partition of the country between Ex-Séléka militias in the north and east and Anti-balaka militias in the south and west, hostilities between both sides decreased[139] but sporadic fighting continued.[160][161] In February 2016, after a peaceful
election, the former prime minister
Faustin-Archange Touadéra was elected president. In October 2016,
France announced that it was ending its peacekeeping mission in the country,
Operation Sangaris, and largely withdrew its troops, saying that the operation was a success.[162] By March 2014, the
UNSC had authorised a probe into possible genocide, which in turn followed
International Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor
Fatou Bensouda initiating a preliminary investigation into the "extreme brutality" and whether it falls into the court's remit. The UNSC mandate probe would be led by
Cameroonian lawyer Bernard Acho Muna, who was the deputy chief prosecutor for the
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, former
Mexican Secretary of Foreign Affairs
Jorge Castañeda and
Mauritanian lawyer Fatimata M'Baye.[163] The
ICC began prosecutions and
Alfred Yekatom of the Anti-Balaka who was involved in the 'Battle of Bangui' and
Patrice Edouard Ngaïssona of the Anti-Balaka were arrested in 2018, although no one from the Ex-Séléka was arrested.[164]
In eastern
CAR, tensions erupted in competition between Ex-Séléka militias arising over control of a goldmine in November 2016, where MPC[157] and the FPRC coalition, which incorporated elements of their former enemy, the Anti-balaka,[155] attacked UPC.[165][166] The violence is often ethnic in nature with the FPRC associated with the
Gula and
Runga people and the UPC associated with the
Fulani.[139] Most of the fighting was in the centrally located
Ouaka prefecture, which has the country's second largest city
Bambari, because of its strategic location between the
Muslim and
Christian regions of the country and its wealth.[157] The fight for Bambari in early 2017 displaced 20,000.[167][166] MINUSCA made a robust deployment to prevent FPRC taking the city and in February 2017,
Joseph Zoundeiko, the chief of staff[17] of FPRC who previously led the military wing of
Séléka, was killed by MINUSCA after crossing one of the red lines.[166] At the same time, MINUSCA negotiated the removal of
Ali Darassa from the city. This led to UPC to find new territory, spreading the fighting from urban to rural areas previously spared. Additionally, the thinly spread MINUSCA relied on
Ugandan as well as
American special forces to keep the peace in the southeast, as they were part of a campaign to eliminate the
Lord's Resistance Army, but the mission ended in April 2017.[155] By the latter half of 2017, the fighting largely shifted to the southeast where the UPC reorganized and were pursued by the FPRC and Anti-balaka with the level of violence only matched by the early stage of the war.[168][169] About 15,000 people fled from their homes in an attack in May and six
U.N. peacekeepers were killed – the deadliest month for the mission yet.[170] In June 2017, another ceasefire was signed in
Rome by the government and 14 armed groups including FPRC, but the next day fighting between an FPRC faction and Anti-balaka militias killed more than 100 people.[171] In October 2017, another ceasefire was signed between the UPC, the FPRC, and Anti-balaka groups, and FPRC announced
Ali Darassa as coalition vice-president, but fighting continued afterward.[168] By July 2018 the FPRC was headed by Abdoulaye Hissène and based in the northeastern town of
N'Délé.[172] In 2019, the FPRC split into two factions, a
Runga group on one side, including Abdoulaye Hissene, and rival fighters from the Gula and
Kara on the other side.[173]
In western
CAR, another rebel group, with no known links to
Séléka or
Anti-balaka, called "Return, Reclamation, Rehabilitation" (3R) formed in 2015 reportedly by
Sidiki Abass,[174] claiming to be protecting Muslim
Fulani people from an Anti-balaka militia led by Abbas Rafal.[174][175] They are accused of displacing 17,000 people in November 2016 and at least 30,000 people in the
Ouham-Pendé prefecture in December 2016.[175] In northwestern CAR around
Paoua, fighting since December 2017 between "Revolution and Justice" (RJ) and "Movement for the Liberation of the Central African Republic People" (MNLC) displaced around 60,000 people. MNLC, founded in October 2017,[176] was led by Ahamat Bahar, a former member and co-founder of FPRC and MRC, and is allegedly backed by Fulani fighters from
Chad. The Christian[177] militant group RJ was formed in 2013, mostly by members of the presidential guard of former president
Ange-Félix Patassé, and were composed mainly of ethnic
Sara-Kaba.[178] While both groups had previously divided the territory in the Northwest, tensions erupted after the killing of RJ leader, Clément Bélanga,[179] in November 2017.[180]
Beginning around 2017,
Russia began to increasingly support the government of
Touadéra, whose personal guard became largely Russian as well. Three Russian journalists were killed in 2018 while investigating Russian mercenary groups in
CAR. In August 2018, Russia and
Sudan helped broker another tentative agreement among armed groups.[181] After talks in
Khartoum, an
African Union led initiative led to an accord between the government and 14 rebel groups in February 2019 called the Political Agreement for Peace and Reconciliation,[182] the eighth such agreement since the war started in 2012.[183] As part of the accord,
Ali Darassa of UPC,
Mahamat Al-Khatim of MPC and
Sidiki Abass of 3R were given positions as special military advisers to the prime minister's office overseeing special mixed units made of government and rebel soldiers in regions of the country that they already controlled.[164] This did not stop the violence, with 3R killing more than 50 people in several villages in May 2019,[184] leading to MINUSCA to launch a military operation against them.[185] In August 2019, Sidiki Abbas of 3R and Mahamat Al-Khatim of MPC resigned from their government posts.
Democratic Front of the Central African People (FDPC) leader Abdoulaye Miskine refused to take his government post and joined a new rebel group formed in June 2019 called "Partie du Rassemblement de la Nation Centrafricaine" (PRNC) to oppose the peace deal, claiming that the deal is a way of rebel leaders to gain money and posts from the government.[186] In September 2019, fighting between two rebel groups that signed the February 2019 deal, FPRC and the mostly
Kara "
Movement of Central African Liberators for Justice" (MLCJ), which was founded by
Abakar Sabon and was not part of the
Séléka alliance that overthrew
Bozizé,[178] killed at least 24 people and displaced about 24,000.[185]
Rebel alliance and advance
Presidential and legislative elections were scheduled for 27 December 2020.[187] Former President
François Bozizé had announced his return to the country in December 2019 and his intent to run in the presidential election.[188] Bozizé, of the
Gbaya, the country's largest ethnic group, retained much support among the population and army members.[189]
On 19 December 2020 six rebel groups who together control two-thirds of the country's territory,[190] including
3R led by General
Sembé Bobo,
FPRC,[191] and
UPC,[192] announced they had formed an alliance called the
Coalition of Patriots for Change (CPC), and accused President
Touadéra of trying to rig the election and stated their intent to advance to the capital. They seized several towns close to
Bangui. The government accused
Bozizé of fomenting a coup with the rebels after his candidacy for presidential elections was rejected by the country's highest court, but Bozizé denied this.[193][191]
On 20 December 2020
Rwanda confirmed it had sent troops and
Russia said it had sent 300 military instructors.[194][195][196] On 22 December, the
CPC, in an offensive led by
UPC, had taken the country's fourth largest city,
Bambari, according to its mayor,[192] but the
UN stated that its peacekeepers had retaken the city the next day.[189] On 28 December, it was announced by the electoral commission that 800 (14%) of polling stations failed to operate during the presidential and legislative elections due to violent attacks from armed rebels.[197]
On 3 January 2021,
MINUSCA reported that the rebel coalition partially captured
Bangassou, adding that the fighters were allied to former President
François Bozizé. It is argued that the arrival of the
Rwandans and
Russians thwarted the rebels from reaching
Bangui and so the rebels adopted a long-term strategy of suffocating Bangui by controlling the resources around it,[198] however, on 13 January, the
CPC attacked the capital but were eventually repelled.[199]
On 4 January, the electoral commission declared
Touadéra the winner of the presidential election.[200][201] A state of emergency was declared in 25 January, and President Touadéra has been accused of using that opportunity to crack down on opponents and consolidate power. Pro-Touadéra militias known as the "Sharks" and "7th Territorial Infantry Battalion" are alleged to have been involved in disappearances of members of
Bozizé's party and former president's
Catherine Samba-Panza, as well as challengers of Touadéra in the recent polls,
Anicet-Georges Dologuélé and
Martin Ziguélé, report being prevented from exiting the country.[2]
Russian mercenaries and government offensives (January 2021-present)
Since January 2021, due to the actions of
Russia's
Wagner Group the rebels have been on the retreat for the first time in years.[2] On 25 January 2021,
CAR forces, backed by Russian
PMCs and
Rwandan troops, attacked
Boyali, killing 44 rebels who were plotting an assault on the capital.[202] Subsequently, CAR forces, supported by the Russian contractors and Rwandan troops, captured a number of strategic towns throughout February 2021, including
Bossembele,
Bouar,
Beloko and
Bossangoa. As the rebels were being pushed back, Valery Zakharov urged them to hand over their leaders to the CAR's security forces.[203][204][205][206] During the fighting, the rebel
Coalition of Patriots for Change (CPC) claimed its fighters killed several Wagner Group PMCs and captured one when they destroyed their truck near
Bambari on 10 February.[207]
On 25 March,
3R rebel leader
Sidiki Abass, whose group is accused of war crimes, had succumbed to his injuries in the northern part of the country.[212] In April 2021, the
UPC, then the biggest of the armed rebel groups,[213] withdrew from the
CPC[214] and asked to talk with the government which has declined so far.[2] The rebels were seen to be moving away from cities and towards peripheral areas and turning to guerilla tactics instead of open fighting.[215]
By mid-May, the
Russians have captured a village about 40 km from
Bambari during fighting that left 20 people dead.[citation needed] In addition, at the end of the month,
Russian and
SyrianPMCs of the Wagner Group attacked a rebel checkpoint at the entrance of a village 28 km from
Bria, killing three
CPC fighters.[citation needed] Towards the end of July, the
CAR military was leaving the frontline against the CPC to the
PMCs. The plan was for government troops to occupy the captured positions after they had been secured by the contractors.[216]
The increase in influence by
Russia at the expense of
France in its former colony led to a
disinformation campaign on
Facebook between the two powers and France suspending aid and military cooperation with the
CAR government in May 2021.[217]
On 16 and 17 January 2022, Russian mercenaries
killed at least 65 civilians in Aïgbado and Yanga villages.[219] In March 2022, they launched a
large offensive against armed groups in the northern part of the country, during which they reportedly killed hundreds of civilians, mostly artisanal miners.[220] In April 2022 a
series of intercommunal clashes involving
3R rebels and pro-government faction of
Anti-balaka led to dozens of deaths and displacement of more than 1,000 people in
Gadzi.[221] On 4 December 2022 leader of four armed groups (MLCJ, RPRC, UFR and UFR-R) signed in Bangui an agreement announcing their dissolution.[222]
Atrocities
Religious cleansing
It is argued that the focus of the initial disarmament efforts exclusively on the Séléka inadvertently handed the anti-Balaka the upper hand, leading to the forced displacement of Muslim civilians by anti-Balaka in Bangui and western CAR.[42] While comparisons were often posed as the "next
Rwanda", others[223] suggested that the
Bosnian Genocide's may be more apt as people were moving into religiously cleansed neighbourhoods. Even as Séléka was closing in on the capital, clashes began in Bangui's PK5 neighborhood, where members of ethnic groups with ties to Séléka were attacked, such as the Gula.[87] After the withdrawal of Séléka leaders from Bangui, there was a wave of attacks against Muslims with anti-Muslim pogroms and looting of Muslim neighborhoods,[224][225][226] including the lynching of the Muslim former Health Minister Dr.
Joseph Kalite[227] by Christian self-defence groups.[228] Accounts state of lynch mobs, including that of uniformed soldiers, stoning or hacking Muslims then dismembering and burning their bodies in the streets.[229] In 2014,
Amnesty International reported several massacres committed by the anti-balakas against Muslim civilians, forcing thousands of Muslims to flee the country.[230] Other sources report incidents of Muslims being
cannibalized.[231][232] On 10 April, MISCA troops escorted over 1,000 Muslims fleeing to Chad with a police source saying "not a single Muslim remains in Bossangoa."[233] The Muslim population of Bangui dropped 99% from 138,000 to 900.[42] In 2015,
Samantha Power, the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, said 417 of the country's 436 mosques had been destroyed, and Muslim women were so scared of going out in public they were giving birth in their homes instead of going to the hospital.[234]
Eric Danboy Bagale, head of former president
François Bozizé's guard and head of the mostly Christian anti-Balaka militias, was arrested in Paris on 19 September,
2020 for war crimes in relation to revenge killings.[235]
Ethnic violence
Much of the tension is also over historical antagonism between agriculturalists, who largely comprise Anti-balaka and nomadic groups, who largely comprise Séléka fighters.[44] There was ethnic violence during fighting between the Ex-Séléka militias FPRC and UPC, with the FPRC targeting
Fulani people who largely make up the UPC and the UPC targeting the
Gula and
Runga people, who largely make up FPRC, as being sympathetic to FPRC.[139] In November 2016 fighting in
Bria that killed 85 civilians, FPRC was reported targeting
Fulani people in house-to-house searches, lootings, abductions and killings.[236]
Within the FPRC, the Gula wing attacked the Runga wing in Ndele in April 2020, with at least 25 people being killed.[173]
It is also reported that in 2019, violence broke out in the northeastern region, where the killing of an ethnic
Kara man sparked heavy fighting between the mainly Kara MLCJ and largely Runga FPRC.[185]
Violence against aid workers and crime
In 2015, humanitarian aid workers in the CAR were involved in more than 365 security incidents, more than Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq and Somalia. By 2017, more than two-thirds of all health facilities have been damaged or destroyed.[237] The crimes are often committed by individuals not associated with any armed rebel groups.[238] There have been jail breaks with more than 500 inmates escaping from Nagaragba Central Prison, including fighters of both Christian and Muslim militias.[239] By 2017, only eight of 35 prisons function and few courts operate outside the capital.[240] The international press freedom organization
Reporters Without Borders said it was concerned that the rebel attacks were taking their toll on the ability of radio stations to operate in the CAR,[241] with condemnation of the killing of journalist
Elisabeth Blanche Olofio,[242][243][244] who worked for Radio Bé-Oko which is part of a network of apolitical radio stations known as L'Association des Radios Communautaires de Centrafrique.[245][246]
December — 600+ killed in "Battle of Bangui", as antibalaka militias unsuccessfully attempt to overthrow Djotodia.[126][254][255][256] Two children were beheaded with a total of 16 children killed in Bangui in late December.[257][258]
2014
22 January — people were killed after gunmen in
Bouar attacked a convoy in an attempt to halt Muslim refugees trying to flee the violence.[259]
February — 75 people were killed in the town of
Boda, in
Lobaye province, according to a local priest.[260] Anti-balaka militants attacked
Guen resulting in the deaths of 60 people. As a result, hundreds of Muslim refugees sought shelter at a church in
Carnot.[261]
29 March — Chadian peacekeepers not a part of MISCA entered Bangui's PK12 district market and allegedly indiscriminately opened fire resulting in 30 deaths and over 300 injuries.[8]
30 March — A Muslim throws a grenade at a group of Christian mourners resulting in 11 deaths.[262]
May — Séléka rebels kill at least 30 at a Catholic church compound.[263]
23 June — Anti-balaka forces killed 18 at Bambari. Several Séléka then killed 10 anti-balaka.[264]
8 July — 17 people were killed when Séléka forces attacked a Catholic church in Bambari.
August — 34 people were reported killed by Séléka fighters around
Mbrès.[265]
2015
September — At least 42 people were reported killed.[266]
2016
25 October — people were reported killed in Bambari.[267]
2017
Anti-balaka attacked
Bangassou, slaughtering dozens of Muslim civilians as well as 12 UN peacekeepers.[198]
2019
May — 3R massacres more than 50 people in several villages in the northwest.[184]
2020
February — Members of the Popular Front for the Rebirth of Central Africa (FPRC) attacked
MINUSCA forces in
Birao, leading to 12 FPRC forces being killed.[268]
April — At least 25 people killed in Ndele when the Gula faction of the FPRC attacked the Runga faction.[173]
December — 3 UN peacekeepers from Burundi were killed in
Dekoa[269]
2021
January — One UN peacekeeper killed when CPC launched an attack on Bangui.[270]
2022
April — 6 soldiers were killed when CPC militants attacked a military camp at the outskirts of Bakouma[271]
2023
November — 5 civilians were killed when CPC launched an attack on Moyenne Sido.[272]
Displaced people
In May 2014, it was reported that around 600,000 people in CAR were internally displaced with 160,000 of these in the capital Bangui. By May 2014, 100,000 people had fled to neighbouring Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of Congo[273] and Chad. As of 2017, there are more than 1.1 million displaced people in a country of about 5 million people, the highest ever recorded in the country,[45] with about half a million refugees outside CAR and about 600,000 internally displaced.[274] Cameroon hosted the most refugees, more than 135,000, about 90% of whom are
Fulani, even though they constituted 6% of CAR's population.[275]
In December 2020, after a contested election rebels -known as the Coalition of Patriots for Change or the CPC have seized main roadways and prevented the flow of goods into Bouar. These and other similar efforts have caused an estimated 100,000 to leave their homes.[276] A month later, January
2021, the number had doubled to 200,000, including 92,000 refugees in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and 13,000 in Chad, the Republic of the Congo, and Cameroon.[277]
International response
Organizations
African Union –
Yayi Boni, then-chairman of the African Union, held a press conference in Bangui, stating, "I beg my rebellious brothers, I ask them to cease hostilities, to make peace with President Bozizé and the Central African people ... If you stop fighting, you are helping to consolidate peace in Africa. African people do not deserve all this suffering. The African continent needs peace and not war."[278] Boni went on to call for dialogue between the current government and the rebels.[278] The African Union suspended the Central African Republic from its membership on 25 March 2013.[279]
European Union – On 21 December 2012 the
High Representative for Foreign AffairsCatherine Ashton called on the armed rebel groups to "cease all hostilities and to respect the Libreville Comprehensive Peace Agreement."
European Commissioner for Humanitarian AidKristalina Georgieva added that she was deeply worried over the situation in the country and that she strongly urged "all armed groups to respect international humanitarian law and the activities of humanitarians".[280] On 1 January Ashton once again expressed concern over the violence and urged all parties involved to "take all necessary measures to end, without delay, all exactions against populations in Bangui neighbourhoods that undermine chances of a peaceful dialogue."[281]
On 10 February 2014, the European Union established a military operation entitled
EUFOR RCA, with the aim "to provide temporary support in achieving a safe and secure environment in the Bangui area, with a view to handing over to African partners." The French Major General
Philippe Pontiès was appointed as a commander of this force.[282]
United Nations – On 26 December 2012 the U.N. announced it was pulling all non-essential personnel out of the country due to the worsening security situation. In a statement,
U.N. Secretary-GeneralBan Ki-moon condemned the rebels' advance and warned that it had the potential to "gravely undermine the peace agreements in place." He also called on the government "to ensure the safety and security of U.N. personnel and its premises."[78] On 31 January 2020, the
United Nations Security Council approved an extension of an arms embargo against the Central African Republic until 31 July 2020.[283]
Countries
Regional
Gabon/Chad/Cameroon/Congo/Equatorial Guinea sent troops in 2013 to make up an African Union Multinational Force for Central Africa (FOMAC) peacekeeping force in CAR.[284][285]
Others
Brazil – On 25 December 2012, the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Brazil issued a statement "urging the parties to observe an immediate cessation of hostilities and any acts of violence against the civilian population" and called for "the restoration of institutional legality in the Central African Republic". The Brazilian government stated that it had been in contact with the small number of Brazilian nationals residing in the country.[286]
Estonia – On 9 May 2014, sent 55 troops to join the EU's EUFOR RCA mission.[287]
Georgia – 140 troops joined EU's military mission in the Central African Republic.[288]
France – On 27 December 2012, CAR President Francois Bozizé requested international assistance to help with the rebellion, in particular from France and the United States. French President François Hollande rejected the plea, saying that the 250 French troops stationed at Bangui M'Poko International Airport are there "in no way to intervene in the internal affairs". Separately, a Foreign Ministry statement condemned "the continued hostility by the rebel groups", adding that the only solution to the crisis was dialogue.[289]
South Africa – South Africa had
numerous troops in the CAR since 2007. A
Special Forces unit protected President Bozizé under Operation Morero and a second group trained FACA under Operation Vimbezela.[290] Defence Minister
Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula traveled to Bangui on 31 December 2012 to assess the situation.[291] On 8 January 2013 the
South African National Defence Force deployed 200 additional troops to the CAR, half of the force authorized by President
Jacob Zuma.[292] On 21 March President Bozizé traveled to Pretoria to meet with Zuma,[293] allegedly to discuss the 72-hour ultimatum that the rebels had given him.[294] The South African troops from the
1 Parachute Battalion suffered 13 killed and 27 wounded[295] while defending against the advancing Séléka. On 24 March 2013 SANDF soldiers began withdrawing to
Entebbe air base, with the reported intention to return to the CAR to retake control from Séléka.[296]
United States of America – On 17 December 2012 the
State Department's
Overseas Security Advisory Council published an emergency message warning US citizens about armed groups active in Mbrès and advising them to avoid travel outside Bangui. US Embassy personnel were prohibited from traveling by road outside the capital.[297] On 24 December the State Department issued another warning. All non-essential personnel were evacuated, and the embassy switched to limited emergency consular services.[298] On 28 December, the
United States Embassy in Bangui suspended operations due to the ongoing rebel attacks;[299] with Ambassador
Laurence D. Wohlers and his diplomatic staff evacuating the country.[300]
Serbia – In accordance with Security Council's Resolution 2149,
Government of Serbia approved engagement of
Serbian Armed Forces. On 20 September 2014 two military observers and two staff officers are deployed. Later, on 11 December 2014, 68 more personnel have been deployed in this mission. On 15 December 2016, Serbia deployed team for emergency medical assistance and level 1 medical team, as part of the EUTM RCA (European Union Training Mission).[301][302]
^
abcdDukhan, N. (2016). The Central African Republic crisis. Birmingham, UK: GSDRC, University of Birmingham.
[1]Archived 29 March 2017 at the
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^Richard, Florence; Larson, Krista (30 November 2013).
"Sectarian tensions mount in Central African Republic town of Bouca". CTVNews. The Associated Press.
Archived from the original on 17 July 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023. It is believed to be the single deadliest day of violence confirmed in the northwest since the conflict began, with 115 Christians and 38 Muslims killed in the fighting, Mudge said.
^
Underhill, Glynnis; Mmanaledi Mataboge (28 March 2013).
"CAR: Timely warnings were ignored". Mail and Guardian.
Archived from the original on 31 March 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2013.