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The 1956–57 exodus and expulsions from Egypt refer to the departure of foreign residents, primarily from European and Levantine communities.These communities consisting of British, French, Greeks, Italians, Armenians, Maltese and Jews had been established in Egypt since the 19th century. The foreign resident population in Egypt numbered around 200,000 by the end of World War 1. [1] The exodus and expulsion of 1956-1957 were precipitated by various factors, including the Suez Crisis, political instability, the abolition of the capitulations system, and the rise of Egyptian nationalism under Gamal Abdel Nasser. [2]
The exodus of the Mutamassirun ("Egyptianized"), which included the British and French colonial powers, and also Jews, Greeks, Italians, Syro-Lebanese, and Armenians, began after World War I. [3] By the end of the 1960s, the exodus of the "foreign population" was effectively complete. According to Andrew Gorman, this was primarily a result of the "decolonization process and the rise of Egyptian nationalism". [4] [5] [6] Following the invasion of Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel in 1956, the new president Gamal Abdel Nasser enacted a set of sweeping regulations abolishing civil liberties whilst implementing targeted policies, allowing the state to stage mass arrests and strip away Egyptian citizenship from any group it desired. [7] Some lawyers, engineers, doctors, and teachers were no longer allowed to work in their professions. [8] As part of its new policy, 1,000 Jews were arrested and 500 Jewish businesses were seized by the government. [9] Jewish bank accounts were confiscated and many people lost their jobs. [8]
Population of Egypt, 1907-60 [2] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1907 | 1917 | 1927 | 1937 | 1947 | 1960 | |
Egyptians | 11,189,978 | 12,512,106 | 13,952,264 | 15,734,170 | 18,966,767 | 25,984,101 |
European nationals | ||||||
Greeks | 62,973 | 56,731 | 76,264 | 68,559 | 57,427 | 47,673 |
Italians | 34,926 | 40,198 | 52,462 | 47,706 | 27,958 | 14,089 |
British/Maltese | 20,356 | 24,354 | 34,169 | 31,523 | 28,246 | 25,175 |
French | 14,591 | 21,270 | 24,332 | 18,821 | 9,717 | |
Others | 16,664 | |||||
Other Communities | ||||||
Jews | 38,635 | 58,581 | 63,550 | 62,953 | 65,639 | 8,561 |
Armenians | 7,747 | 12,854 | 17,145 | 16,886 | - | - |
Syrians, Palestinians, and other Arab nationalities | 33,947 | 31,725 | 39,605 | 38,692 | - | 56,375 |
The actions taken to encourage emigration or expel the foreign minorities applied to the whole Mutamassirun population, and after 1956 a large majority of Greeks, Syro-Lebanese, Italians, Belgians, French, and British, including Jews, left the country. [10][ failed verification] The expellees were allowed to take only one suitcase and a small sum of cash, and forced to sign declarations "donating" their property to the Egyptian government. [11]
On 9 December 1956, Egyptian Interior Minister Zakaria Mohieddin stated that of Egypt's 18,000 British and French citizens, 1,452 had been ordered to be expelled. [12]
Egyptian Greeks, often referred to as "Egyptiot Greeks" or simply "Egyptiots", were a prominent ethnic community in Egypt with roots dating back centuries. The exodus of Greeks from Egypt started before the coup d'état of 1952. With the establishment of the new regime of Gamal Abdel Nasser, the rise of Pan-Arab nationalism, and the subsequent nationalisation of many industries in 1961 and 1963, thousands of Greek employees decided to emigrate. [2]
Many Greek schools, churches, small communities, and institutions subsequently closed, but many continue to function to this day. The Nasser regime saw a significant exodus of Greeks from Egypt, but most of the minority left the country either before or after the period 1952-1970. The Arab-Israeli war of 1967 contributed to the uprooting of the sizable Greek community in the Suez Canal cities, especially in Port Said. [2]
Despite their departure, the legacy of the Egyptian Greeks continues to endure through cultural institutions, traditions, and the memories of those who once called Egypt home. Many of them emigrated to Australia, the United States, Canada, South Africa, Western Europe, and Greece. The term "Egyptio Greeks" serves as a reminder of their hybrid identity and the bonds that once connected them to both Egypt and Greece.
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The decree was also relevant to Egyptian Jews suspected as Zionist agents, especially those with free professions and relatives in Israel. [8] Although there was an indigenous Jewish population, most Jews in Egypt in the early twentieth century were recent immigrants to the country who did not share the Arabic language and culture. [13] Until the late 1930s, the foreign minorities, including both indigenous and recent immigrant Jews, tended to apply for dual-citizenship in addition to their Egyptian birth citizenship order to benefit from a foreign protection. [14]
Some 23,000—25,000 Jews out of 42,500 in Egypt left, [15] mainly for Israel, Western Europe, the United States, South America, and Australia. [16] Many were forced to sign declarations that they were voluntarily emigrating and agreed to the confiscation of their assets. Similar measures were enacted against British and French nationals in retaliation for the invasion. By 1957 the Jewish population of Egypt had fallen to 15,000. [17]
The Guardian correspondent Michael Adams noted in 1958 that the Egyptian government ultimately expelled a minority of the Jewish population of Egypt, though many Jews left as a result of increasing pressure. [18] This is supported by Professor Michael Laskier [19] who claims: "It is estimated that as early as the end of November 1956 at least 500 Egyptian and stateless Jews had been expelled from Egypt". In contrast, Max Elstein Keisler[ unreliable source?] claims that "around 25 000 Jews were expelled that year (1956)", [20] equivalent to all of the Jews who left Egypt in 1956. [19]
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