The
Golden Twenties was a particular vibrant period in the
history of Berlin. After the
Greater Berlin Act, the city became the third largest municipality in the world[1] and experienced its heyday as a major world city. It was known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, art, music, film, architecture, higher education, government, diplomacy and industries.
The
Weimar Republic era began in the midst of several major movements in the fine arts.
German Expressionism had begun before World War I and continued to have a strong influence throughout the 1920s, although artists were increasingly likely to position themselves in opposition to expressionist tendencies as the decade went on.
Film was making huge technical and artistic strides during this period of time in Berlin, and gave rise to the influential movement called
German Expressionism. "
Talkies", the sound films, were also becoming more popular with the general public across Europe, and Berlin was producing many of them.
The so-called mystical arts also experienced a revival during this time-period in Berlin, with
astrology, the
occult, and
esoteric religions and off-beat religious practices becoming more mainstream and acceptable to
the masses as they entered popular culture.
The
University of Berlin (today Humboldt University of Berlin) became a major intellectual centre in Germany, Europe, and the World. The sciences were especially favored — from 1914 to 1933.
Physician
Magnus Hirschfeld established the
Institut für Sexualwissenschaft (Institute for Sexology) in 1919, and it remained open until 1933. Hirschfeld believed that an understanding of
homosexuality could be arrived at through science. Hirschfeld was a vocal advocate for
homosexual,
bisexual, and
transgender legal rights for men and women, repeatedly petitioning parliament for legal changes. His Institute also included a museum.
Politically, Berlin was seen as a left wing stronghold, with the Nazis calling it "the reddest city [in Europe] after Moscow."[3] Nazi propagandist
Joseph Goebbels became his party's "
Gauleiter" for Berlin in the autumn of 1926 and had only been in charge a week before organizing a march through a
communist-sympathizing area that devolved into a street riot. The communists, who adopted the motto "Beat the fascists wherever you encounter them!" had their own paramilitary organization called the
Roter Frontkämpferbund to battle the Nazis'
Sturmabteilung (SA). In February 1927 the Nazis held a meeting in the "Red" stronghold of
Wedding that turned into a violent brawl. "Beer glasses, chairs and tables flew through the hall, and severely injured people were left lying covered with blood on the floor. Despite the injuries, it was a triumph for Goebbels, whose followers beat up about 200 communists and drove them from the hall."[4]
Infrastructure and industrialization
The government began printing tremendous amounts of currency to pay
reparations; this caused staggering
inflation that destroyed middle-class savings. However, economic expansion resumed after mid-decade, aided by U.S. loans. It was then that culture blossomed especially.
The heyday of Berlin began in the mid-1920s when it was the most industrialized city of
the Continent.
Tempelhof Airport was opened in 1923 and a start was made on
S-Bahn electrification from 1924 onwards. Berlin was also the second biggest
inland harbor of Germany; all of this infrastructure was needed to transport and feed the over 4 million Berliners throughout the 1920s.[citation needed]
Architecture and urban planning
During the
interwar period high-quality architecture was built on a large scale in Berlin for broad sections of the population, including poorer people. In particular the
Berlin Modernism housing estates built before the beginning of
National Socialism set standards worldwide and therefore have been added to the
UNESCO World-heritage list in 2008.[5]
As a result of the economically difficult situation during the
Weimar Republic, housing construction, which up to that time had been mainly privately financed and profit-oriented, had found itself at a dead end. Inflation was on the up and for citizens on low incomes decent housing was becoming increasingly unaffordable.
Consequently, the search was on to find new models for state-initiated housing construction, which could then be implemented with a passion from 1920 on following the creation of
Greater Berlin and the accompanying reform of local and regional government. The requirements for the type of flats to be built and the facilities they were to have were clearly defined, and the city was divided into different building zones. Following some basic ideas of the
Garden city movement two- to three-storey housing estates that were well integrated into the landscape of the suburbs of the city were planned. The first large estate of this type with more than 2,000 residential units was the so-called
Hufeisensiedlung (Horseshoe Estate) designed by
Bruno Taut in Berlin, which introduced a new type of high quality housing and became a prominent example for the use of colors in architecture.
Reputation for decadence
Prostitution rose in Berlin and elsewhere in the areas of Europe left ravaged by World War I. This means of survival for desperate women, and sometimes men, became normalized to a degree in the 1920s. During the war, venereal diseases such as
syphilis and
gonorrhea spread at a rate that warranted government attention.[6] Soldiers at the front contracted these diseases from prostitutes, so the German army responded by granting approval to certain brothels that were inspected by their own medical doctors, and soldiers were rationed coupon books for sexual services at these establishments.[7]Homosexual behaviour was also documented among soldiers at the front. Soldiers returning to Berlin at the end of the War had a different attitude towards their own sexual behaviour than they had a few years previously.[7] Prostitution was frowned on by respectable Berliners, but it continued to the point of becoming entrenched in the city's underground economy and culture.
Crime in general developed in parallel with prostitution in the city, beginning as petty thefts and other crimes linked to the need to survive in the war's aftermath. Berlin eventually acquired a reputation as a hub of drug dealing (cocaine, heroin, tranquilizers) and the black market. The police identified 62 organized criminal gangs in Berlin, called Ringvereine.[8] The German public also became fascinated with reports of homicides, especially "
lust murders" or Lustmord. Publishers met this demand with inexpensive criminal novels called Krimi, which like the
film noir of the era (such as the classic M), explored methods of scientific detection and psychosexual analysis.[9]
Apart from the new tolerance for behaviour that was technically still illegal, and viewed by a large part of society as immoral, there were other developments in Berlin culture that shocked many visitors to the city. Thrill-seekers came to the city in search of adventure, and booksellers sold many editions of guide books to Berlin's erotic night entertainment venues. There were an estimated 500 such establishments, that included a large number of
homosexual venues for men and for
lesbians; sometimes
transvestites of one or both genders were admitted, otherwise there were at least five known establishments that were exclusively for a transvestite clientele.[10] There were also several nudist venues. Berlin also had a museum of sexuality during the Weimar period, at Dr.
Magnus Hirschfeld's
Institute of Sexology.[11] These were nearly all closed when the Nazi regime became a dictatorship in 1933.
Artists in Berlin became fused with the city's
underground culture as the borders between cabaret and legitimate theatre blurred.
Anita Berber, a dancer and actress, became notorious throughout the city and beyond for her erotic performances (as well as her cocaine addiction and erratic behaviour). She was painted by
Otto Dix, and socialized in the same circles as
Klaus Mann.
The Europahaus, one of hundreds of cabarets in Weimar Berlin, 1931.
Prostitutes buy cocaine capsules from a drug dealer in Berlin, 1930. The capsules sold for 5 marks each.
A liquor-seller after closing time on the road. His activity was illegal and the liquor, which cost one mark per glass, was often of quite dubious origin. The seller constantly changed his location.
Life
1920s Berlin was a city of many social contrasts. While a large part of the population continued to struggle with high unemployment and deprivations in the aftermath of World War I, the upper class of society, and a growing middle class, gradually rediscovered prosperity and turned Berlin into a cosmopolitan city.
Cinema in Weimar culture did not shy away from controversial topics, but dealt with them explicitly. Diary of a Lost Girl (1929) directed by
Georg Wilhelm Pabst and starring
Louise Brooks, deals with a young woman who is thrown out of her home after having an illegitimate child, and is then forced to become a prostitute to survive. This trend of dealing frankly with provocative material in cinema began immediately after the end of the War. In 1919,
Richard Oswald directed and released two films, that met with press controversy and action from police vice investigators and government censors. Prostitution dealt with women forced into "
white slavery", while Different from the Others dealt with a
homosexual man's conflict between his sexuality and social expectations.[12] By the end of the decade, similar material met with little, if any opposition when it was released in Berlin theatres.
William Dieterle's Sex in Chains (1928), and Pabst's Pandora's Box (1929) deal with
homosexuality among men and women, respectively, and were not censored.
Homosexuality was also present more tangentially in other films from the period.
The following significant films about 1920s Berlin show the metropolis between 1920 and 1933:
The Last Laugh, 1924 - the aging doorman at a Berlin hotel is demoted to washroom attendant but gets the last laugh, by
F.W. Murnau
Slums of Berlin (Die Verrufenen), 1925 - an engineer in Berlin is released from prison, but his father throws him out, his fiancée left him and there is no chance to find work. Directed by
Gerhard Lamprecht.
Die Stadt der Millionen, 1927 - first full-length documentary and experimental movie on Berlin, its people and their attitude towards life. Directed by
Adolf Trotz.
Refuge (Zuflucht), 1928 - a lonely and tired man comes home after several years abroad, lives with a market-woman in Berlin and starts working for the
Berlin U-Bahn. Directed by
Carl Froelich.
Asphalt, 1929 - the Berlin underworld touches a policeman's life,
Film Noir classic by
Joe May
Looking for His Murderer (Der Mann, der seinen Mörder sucht), 1931 - a man in Berlin plunged in debt does not succeed in committing
suicide and has to hire a murderer to kill him within twelve hours. But in the same night he falls in love with a girl who wants to stop the appointed killer. Directed by
Robert Siodmak.
The Beaverskin (Die Buntkarierten), 1949 - the fate of a typical working-class family in Berlin between 1883 and 1949 facing
child labour,
trade union engagement, war, depression, unemployment and the rise and fall of
Nazism. Directed by
Kurt Maetzig.
Despair, 1978 - against the backdrop of the Nazis' rise, a Russian émigré and chocolate magnate in Berlin goes slowly mad. Directed by
Rainer Werner Fassbinder.
Pinselheinrich, 1979 - episodes from the life of famous Berlin illustrator
Heinrich Zille. Zille gets dismissed from his work, starts to live from his funny and socially critical drawings but uses his earnings and rising fame to help people who are poorer than him. Directed by
Hans Knötzsch.
Fabian, 1980 - in the late 1920s Berlin a copywriter observes the night life with his friend, gets unemployed during the Great Depression, but meets a new girlfriend. When his friend commits suicide and his girlfriend leaves him for a film career, he loses his livelihood. Based on the novel by
Erich Kästner and directed by
Wolf Gremm.
Als Unku Edes Freundin war, 1981 - during the 1920s a circus driven by
Sinti comes to the outskirts of Berlin. A Sinti girl becomes the friend of a poor German boy who tries to buy a bicycle to earn money for his family as a
paperboy. Directed by
Helmut Dziuba.
Hanussen, 1988 - while recovering from being wounded during
World War I, the Doctor discovers that Austrian Klaus Schneider possesses empathic powers. After the war, Schneider changes his name into
Erik Jan Hanussen and goes to Berlin to perform as a hypnotist and mind reader. When he predicts
Adolf Hitler'sMachtergreifung and the
Reichstag fire, the Nazis murder him. Directed by
István Szabó.
Spider's Web (Das Spinnennetz), 1989 - based on the 1923 novel by
Joseph Roth and focused on a young opportunistic Leutnant who suffered personal and national humiliation during the downfall of the
German Empire, and now becomes increasingly active in the right-wing underground of the early 1920s Berlin. Directed by
Bernhard Wicki.
A Letter Without Words, 1998 - reconstructing the life of a wealthy, Jewish amateur filmmaker in Berlin during the 1920s and early 1930s on the basis of authentic filmic material presented by her granddaughter. Directed by
Lisa Lewenz.
Sass, 2001 - based on the true story of brothers Franz and Erich Sass from
Moabit district, who became the most famous and innovative
bank robbers during 1920s Berlin. Directed by
Carlo Rola.
Love in Thoughts (Was nützt die Liebe in Gedanken), 2004 - about the so-called Steglitz student tragedy in 1927, when two young men made a
suicide pact under the influence of alcohol, music and sex, which led to a tragedy. Directed by
Achim von Borries.
^Berlin Modernism Housing Estates. Inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List; German/English; Editor: Berlin Monument Authority -
ISBN978-3-03768-000-1