January 6 – The
Siege of Salses ends almost six months after it had started on June 9, 1639, with the French defenders surrendering to the Spanish attackers.
June 13 – The eruption of the
Mount Komagatake volcano takes place in Japan. Although the eruption causes few direct injuries, the heavy ashfall poisons local crops and causes the
Kan'ei Great Famine that causes more than 50,000 deaths from starvation.
July–September
July 9 –
John Punch, a servant of
Virginia planter Hugh Gwyn, is sentenced to a life of servitude after attempting to escape, making him the "first official slave in the English colonies" [2]
September 20 – The
Siege of Turin ends in Italy after almost four months with a victory by French and Piedmontese after having started on May 22, and the city is recaptured from Spain.
The end of the
Iberian Union of Spain and Portugal begins, as a revolution organized by the nobility and bourgeoisie causes
John IV of Portugal to be acclaimed as king, thus ending 60 years of
personal union of the crowns of Portugal and Spain, and the rule of the
House of Habsburg (also called the Philippine Dynasty). The Spanish Habsburgs do not recognize Portugal's new dynasty, the
House of Braganza, until the end of the
Portuguese Restoration War in
1668.
March 7 – King Charles I of England decrees that all Roman Catholic priests must leave England by April 7 or face being arrested and treated as traitors.
The
Siege of São Filipe begins in the Azores as the Portuguese Navy fights to drive the Spanish out. After almost 11 months, the Portuguese prevail on March 4, 1642.
April–June
April 7 – The deadline for Catholic priests to leave England expires. Among those who refuse to leave,
Ambrose Barlow and
William Ward become
martyrs. Barlow surrenders on Easter Sunday, April 25, and is hanged on September 10; he will be canonized as a saint in 1970. Ward is caught on July 15 and executed on July 26.
April 21 – England's House of Commons votes 204 to 59 in favor of the conviction for treason and the execution of the Earl of Strafford, and the House of Lords acquiesces.[9] King Charles refuses to give the necessary royal assent.
May 7 – England's House of Lords votes, 51 to 9, in favor of the execution of the Earl of Strafford for treason. In fear for his own safety, King Charles I signs Strafford's death warrant on May 10.
May 11 – The
Long Parliament in England passes the "Act against Dissolving Parliament without its own Consent".
May 24 –
Providence Island in the Caribbean, settled by English Puritans and a haven for English pirates off the coast of modern-day
Colombia, is captured in a joint operation of the Spanish Navy in an attack led by Don Francisco Díaz Pimienta, and the Portuguese Navy led by the Count of Castel-Melhor Sousa. The expedition takes 770 prisoners, 380 slaves and a fortune in plundered gold and silver.[11]
June 1 – In Paris, representatives of
Portugal and
France sign a treaty of alliance.
June 2 – Bavarian and Spanish troops capture the town of
Bad Kreuznach during the
Thirty Years' War, 17 months after it had been taken in a French and Saxon attack.
June 29 – The
Battle of Wolfenbüttel takes place between a combined Swedish and French force against the Holy Roman Empire, with the Swedish-French Army driving back an Imperial assault.
In France, the siege of
Bapaume ends with the surrender of the fortress by its Spanish occupiers.
September 23 – The English ship Merchant Royal sinks off
Cornwall along with its cargo of 100,000 pounds (45,000 kg) of gold and 18 of its 58 crew. More than 380 years later, treasure seekers will still not have located the wreckage.[13]
October 23 –
Irish Rebellion of 1641 breaks out: Irish Catholic gentry, chiefly in
Ulster, revolt against the English administration and Scottish settlers in Ireland.
November 22 – By a vote of 159 to 148, the
Long Parliament of England passes the Grand Remonstrance, with 204 specific objections to
King Charles I's absolutist tendencies, and calling for the King to expel all Anglican bishops from the House of Lords.
December 1 – The English Parliament presents the Grand Remonstrance to King Charles, who makes no response to it until Parliament has the document published and released to the general public.
December 7 – The bill for the
Militia Ordinance is introduced by
Arthur Haselrig, an anti-monarchist member of the House of Commons, proposing for the first time to allow Parliament to appoint its own military commanders without royal approval. King Charles, concerned that the legislation would allow parliament to create its own army, orders Haselrig arrested for treason. Parliament passes the Militia Ordinance on March 15.
December 23 – King Charles replies to the Grand Remonstrance and refuses the demand for the removal of bishops from the House of Lords. Rioting breaks out in Westminster after the King's refusal is announced, and the 12 Anglican bishops stop attending meetings of the Lords.
December 27 – According to a journalist who witnesses the events,
John Rushworth, the term "
roundhead" is first used to describe supporters of the English Parliament who have challenged the authority of the monarchy. Rushworth writes later that during a riot on the 27th, one of the rioters, David Hide, draws his sword and, describing the short haircuts of the anti-monarchists, says that he would "cut the throat of those round-headed dogs that bawled against bishops."
December 30 – At the request of King Charles,
John Williams, the Anglican
Archbishop of York joins with 11 other bishops in disputing the legality of any legislation passed by the House of Lords during the time that the bishops were excluded. The House of Commons passes a resolution to have the 12 bishops arrested. King Charles, in turn, issues an order on January 3 to have
five members of the House of Commons arrested for treason.
A massive
epidemic breaks out in northern and central China, just three years before the fall of the
Ming dynasty. It races south down along the
Grand Canal of China and the densely populated settlements there, from the northern terminus at Beijing, to the fertile
Jiangnan region. In some local areas and towns it wipes out 90% of the local populace.
February 18 – A group of Protestant English settlers in Ireland surrender to Irish authorities at
Castlebar in
County Mayo in hopes of having their lives spared, and are killed one week later on orders of Edmond Bourke.
February 20 – The
Treaty of The Hague, between the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Portugal, is ratified by the Republic's States-General.
February 22 – The Italian opera Il palazzo incantato (The Enchanted Palace), by Luigi Rossi with libretto by Giulion Rospigliosi, is given its first performance.
March 1 – Georgeana, Massachusetts (now known as
York, Maine) becomes the first incorporated city in the British colonies of North America.[16]
June 1 – The "
Nineteen Propositions" are sent by the English House of Lords and House of Commons to
King Charles I, asking the King to consent to parliamentary approval for the members of his privy council, his chief officers, and new seats created for the House of Lords, as well as regulating the education and choice of marital partners of the King's children, and barring Roman Catholics from the Lords.[18]
July 2 – Hundreds of sailors are killed when the French warship Galion de Guise and the Spanish galley Magdalena become entangled during the
Battle of Barcelona. A French
fireship attempts to burn the Magdalena and accidentally sets fire to the Galion de Guise, killing 500 of the 540 crew.[19]
July 10 –
First English Civil War:
Charles Ibesieges Hull, in an attempt to gain control of its arsenal. The siege lasts until July 27, with Charles's Royalist Army failing to take the city from the Parliamentarians commanded by Governor John Hotham and General John Meldrum.
July 12 – The English Parliament votes to raise its own Army, under the command of the Earl of Essex.
August 3 – A Dutch Navy fleet of 14 warships, led by Hendric Harouse, begins a campaign to drive Spaniards from the island of Formosa (now
Taiwan) off of the coast of mainland China. After disembarking at Tamsui, the Dutch begin a siege of Fort Domingo, which falls on Saint Bartolomeo Day (August 24).[21]
September 8 –
Thomas Granger is executed by hanging at Plymouth, Massachusetts, for confessing to numerous acts of bestiality.[22]
October–December
October 8 –
1642 Yellow River flood: Some 300,000 people die in the intentional breaking of the dams and dykes of the
Yellow River, done either by the Ming dynasty defenders of
Kaifeng to break the siege by the large Manchu dynasty rebel force of
Li Zicheng.[23]
November 24 –
Abel Tasman and his crew become the first Europeans to discover "
Van Diemen's Land", now the Australian island and state of
Tasmania, and the island is claimed for the Netherlands on December 3 at what is now Prince of Wales Bay.[25]
December 13 –
Abel Tasman and his crew become the first recorded Europeans to sight
New Zealand, arriving at its South Island. In a battle between the Europeans and the Island's
Maori inhabitants, four crew members are killed.
December 21 – After routing Edward Ford's royalist troops at the
Battle of Muster Green, William Waller follows Ford's retreating force to Chichester as the Parliamentarians besiege the city, which falls on December 29 after eight days. The inhabitants of Chichester agree to pay the Parliamentarians an additional month's pay to prevent the town from being plundered.[27]
Date unknown
The village of Bro (Broo),
Sweden is granted city rights for the second time, and takes the name
Kristinehamn (literally "Christina's port") after the then Swedish monarch,
Queen Christina.
(17
Dhu al-Qadah 1052
AH) In
India, the first ceremony at the nearly-complete
Taj Mahal in
Agra, the Mughal Emperor
Shah Jahan observes the 12th anniversary of the death of his wife,
Mumtaz Mahal, and opens the structure to thousands of mourners.[29]
April 28 –
Francisco de Lucena, former Portuguese Secretary of State, is beheaded after being convicted of treason.
May 14 –
Louis XIV succeeds his father
Louis XIII as King of France at age 4. His rule will last until his death at age 77 in
1715, a total of 72 years, which will be the longest reign of any European monarch in recorded history.
Dutch explorer
Abel Tasman departs from
Batavia in the
Dutch East Indies (modern-day Jakarta in Indonesia) on his second major expedition for the
Dutch East India Company, to map the north coast of
Australia. Tasman commands three ships, Limmen, Zeemeeuw and Braek, and returns to Batavia at the beginning of August with no major discoveries.
March 24 –
Roger Williams is granted an official grant for his
Rhode Island Colony from the Parliament of England, allowing the establishment of a general assembly.
April–June
April 18 –
Opchanacanough leads the
Powhatan Indians in an unsuccessful uprising against the English at
Jamestown. Although 300 of the English colonists are slain, the settlers pursue Opchanacanough, who is imprisoned in Jamestown for the rest of his life.[37] This is the last such Indian rebellion in the region.
March 5 –
Thirty Years' War –
Battle of Jankau: The armies of
Sweden decisively defeat the forces of the Holy Roman Empire, in one of the bloodiest battles of the war, in southern Bohemia, some 50 kilometres (31 mi) southeast of Prague.
March 31 – Fearing the spread of the
Black Death (plague),
Edinburgh Town Council prohibits all gatherings except weddings and funerals.
April 10 – Because of the
plague, the
Edinburgh town council orders that the college graduation ceremony should be moved forward, so that students can leave the city (on
November 19, teaching resumes in
Linlithgow).
November 20 – The Colegio de Santo Tomas is elevated by
Pope Innocent X into the
University of Santo Tomas, in his brief In Supreminenti. It has the oldest extant University Charter in the Philippines, as well as the whole of Asia.
January 19 –
Sir Richard Grenville, 1st Baronet, a Royalist fighting for Prince Charles against Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth, is imprisoned for insubordination after proposing to make
Cornwall self-governing in order to win Cornish support for the Royalists. After being incarcerated at the tidal island of
St Michael's Mount off of the coast of Cornwall, he is allowed to escape in March to avoid capture by Cromwell's troops.
January 20 –
Francesco Molin is elected as the 99th
Doge of Venice after 23 ballots, and governs the Venetian Republic for nine years until his death in 1655.
July 7 – The populist political movement called the
Levellers appears in England with the publication of the Levellers manifesto, A Remonstrance of Many Thousand Citizens by Richard Overton and William Walwyn.[50]
July 12 – Lightning strikes the gunpowder tower of the castle of
Bredevoort in the Netherlands, causing an explosion that destroys parts of the
castle and the town, killing Lord Haersolte of Bredevoort and his family, as well as others. Only one son, Anthonie, who is not home that day, survives.[51]
The
Westminster Assembly of Divines, meeting in London, approves a resolution to begin the drawing up of the
Westminster Confession of Faith, declaring that "These heads of Faith, Repentance, and Good Works shall be referred to the three Committees in their order to prepare something upon them for the Confession of Faith.";[52] the draft is printed and sent to the Parliament of England in December.
January 2 – Chinese bandit leader
Zhang Xianzhong, who has ruled the
Sichuan province since 1644, is killed at
Xichong by a Qing archer, after having been betrayed by one of his officers, Liu Jinzhong. [56]
March – Following the Treaty of Ulm that removed Bavaria from the Thirty Years War, the Bavarian troops' commander, Holy Roman Imperial General
Johann von Werth, defies
Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, and von Werth attempts to move the Bavarian troops out of Bavaria and into Austria to come under Imperial jurisdiction. The troops refuse, and von Werth flees to Austria. [62]
June 6 –
Michael Jones, named Governor of Dublin by England's Parliamentarians, lands with 2,000 troops and begins the expulsion of Catholics and the arrest of Protestant royalists.
June 8 – The Puritan rulers of England's
Long Parliament pass the "Ordinance for abolishing all Holidays, and appointing other Days for Sports and Recreations for Scholars, Apprentices, and Servants, in their Room", confirming abolition of the feasts of
Christmas,
Easter and
Whitsun, though making the second Tuesday in each month a secular
holiday. The Act declares "Forasmuch as the Feasts of the Nativity of Christ, Easter, and Whitsuntide, and other Festivals, commonly called Holidays, have heretofore been superstitiously used and observed; be it ordained, That the said Feasts and Festivals be no loner observed within England and Wales." [64][65]
June 10 – The
Battle of Puerto de Cavite begins in the Spanish Philippines when an armada of 12 large warships from the Dutch Republic sails into Manila Bay, with cannon fire hitting many of the roofs of the city. The Spanish defending fleet drives off the Dutch after a two day battle.
June 19 – The
Duke of Ormond, the royalist governor of Dublin, concludes a treaty with the English Commonwealth's
Earl of Anglesey, handing over control of Dublin to the Commonwealth in return for the English promise to protect the interests of royalists, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, who had not joined in the Irish Rebellion.
June 25 – The "Remonstrance of The Army" is presented to the English parliament by former Royal Army supporters of King Charles I, pledging their loyalty to the new English Commonwealth.
July 27 – A mob invades both Houses of the English Parliament at Westminster, and forces the Speakers of the House of Commons and the House of Lords to flee, along with other MPs and Peers. [66]
August 5 – The
New Model Army marches into
London, "fulfilling the worst nightmares of Presbyterian MPs," and restores the members of Parliament who were deposed on July 27. [66]
September 27 – The Dutch merchant ship Princess Amelia runs aground off of the coast of
Mumbles Point, Wales and sinks, killing 86 of the 107 people aboard, including former New Netherlands Governor Willem Kieft.
October–December
October 28 – The
Putney Debates, a series of discussions between officers of the New Model Army following Parliament's military defeat of the absolutist monarchy of King Charles, begin at the
St. Mary's Church, Putney about what form of government would replace the monarchy in the new republican Commonwealth of England.
Aberystwyth Castle in
Wales, a former Royalist stronghold, is razed to the ground after "a battery of cannon erected on the top of Pendinas hill by Cromwell" and the
Parliamentarian troops. [68]
Manchu invaders of China's
Fujian province capture Spanish Dominican priest
Francisco Fernández de Capillas, torture him and then behead him. Capillas will be canonized more than 350 years later in 2000 in the Roman Catholic Church as one of the
Martyr Saints of China.
February 11 – England's parliament passes stricter laws against performance of stage plays, providing for demolition of seats in theatres, imprisonment for actors and fines for spectators.[71] The vote comes six days after the King's Men Players are arrested at the Cockpit Theatre during an illegal performance of Rollo Duke of Normandy.
February 28 –
King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway dies after a reign of almost 60 years without having named a successor. The Rigsraadet (Royal Council) and the Estates of the Realm will debate the matter for more than four months before deciding on July 6 to select Christian's oldest surviving son to become
King Frederick III.
March 31 – A major earthquake strikes
Van in Ottoman Armenia.[72]
May 12 – Construction of the
Kaunghmudaw Pagoda is completed in the Kingdom of Burma on the 6th waning of Kason, 1010, near the end of the reign of King
Thalun. Hmannan Yazawin[73]
May 15 – The
Peace of Münster is ratified by both the United Netherlands and the Spanish Empire.
May 16 – England's Commonwealth Army massacres 70
Cornish royalists at
Penzance, leading to
a rebellion against England's Parliamentarians.
June 1 – The
Roundheads defeat the Cavaliers at the Battle of Maidstone in the Second English Civil War.
June 20 – Russian explorer
Semyon Dezhnyov departs from Srednekolymsk to begin the first recorded voyage through the
Bering Strait, between Asia and North America, and arrives in September.[74]
July–September
July 19 – The last major battle of the
Thirty Years' War, the
Battle of Prague ends in a Swedish victory after three days of fighting over the army of
Bohemia. The troops loot the
Prague Castle and steal many of Bohemia's most valuable artifacts.
January 29 –
Serfdom in Russia begins legally as the
Sobornoye Ulozheniye (Соборное уложение, "Code of Law") is signed by members of the
Zemsky Sobor, the parliament of the estates of the realm in the
Tsardom of Russia. Slaves and free peasants are consolidated by law into the new hereditary class of "serfs", and the Russian nobility are given the exclusive privilege of owning the serfs.
February 5 – In
Edinburgh, the Scottish Parliament declares
Prince Charles, son of the recently executed
King Charles I, as King Charles II of Scotland. Prince Charles, at the time, is at sea in charge of royalist forces fighting to drive Oliver Cromwell from the British Isles. Scotland is the first of the three Kingdoms to recognize his claim to the throne.[81]
February 7 – The English Parliament rejects a proposal to continue the English monarchy after
Oliver Cromwell makes clear that he does not wish to be crowned as King of England. [82]
March 4 – The first ever set of rules and regulations for England's
Parliamentary Navy,
Robert Blake's The Laws of War and Ordinances of the Sea, is adopted by the House of Commons,[83] and Blake is promoted to the position of General at Sea of the English fleet.[84]
March 16 – An over 1,000 strong war party of
Haudenosaunee Iroquois invade and burn the Huron mission villages of St. Ignace and St. Louis in present-day
Simcoe County, Ontario, killing about 300 people.
The
English Parliament, having voted February 7 against a proposal to continue the monarchy under Oliver Cromwell, passes the "
Act Abolishing the Kingship" with the goal of creating a republic under a Lord Protector selected by an elected Parliament. [82]
French colonists from
Martinique, led by former Martinique Governor
Jacques Dyel du Parquet, land at St. Georges Harbour on the island of
Grenada for the founding of Fort Annunciation. The fort is soon abandoned and the colonists cross the harbour for the founding of
Fort Royal which eventually becomes the city of
St. George's, Grenada[87]
The Sumuroy Revolt begins in Northern
Samar as Agustin Sumuroy, a Waray, and some of his followers rebel against the polo y servicio (forced labor system).
July–September
July 5 – After news reaches the Western Hemisphere that King Charles I has been deposed and executed, the English colonial government of the Somers Isles, now called
Bermuda, proclaims its recognition of
Charles II as the rightful ruler of the islands. [89]
July 27 – The Commonwealth of England Parliament passes the "Act for the promoting and propagating the Gospel of Jesus Christ in New England" to create the "Company for Propagation of the Gospel in New England and the parts adjacent in America" for Christian missionary ministries to Native American tribes. The New England Company will continue to operate more than three and a half centuries later. [90]
July 31 – Ukrainian Cossack troops under the command of
Mykhailo Krychevsky and
Stepan Pobodailo are overwhelmed in the
Battle of Loyew (in what is now
Belarus) by a smaller force of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth soldiers led by Lithuania's
Janusz Radziwiłł, with the Cossacks losing more than 3,000 fighters. Krychevsky is mortally wounded and dies on August 3.
August 26 – After his "True Levellers", commonly called "The
Diggers", abandon their last major colony at
St. George's Hill at
Weybridge in England, their leader,
Gerrard Winstanley, publishes the pamphlet "A Watch-Word to The City of London, and the Armie", recounting the experience. [91]
October 11 – The
Sack of Wexford in Ireland ends after having started on October 2, with Cromwell's New Model Army breaking through, killing more than 1,500 Irish Catholic defenders and civilians, while losing only 20 of the English soldiers. The capture of Wexford ends the remaining chance that
Charles II, heir to the English throne, can land troops in Ireland, and Charles and the royalist fleet flee to Portugal.
November 24 – The first phase of the
Siege of Waterford begins as Cromwell's New Model Army attempts to take on the strategically-located Irish city's defenders with his own exhausted army. Cromwell is forced to call off the siege after eight days and his army retreats to its winter quarters at
Dungarvan on December 2.
December 6 – The Scottish defenders of Ireland are defeated by Cromwell's forces in the
Battle of Lisnagarvey in County Antrim, with 1,500 Scots killed or captured, and New Model Army battalion of Colonel
Robert Venables suffering minimal losses. The battle ends the Scottish presence in Ireland and settlers are expelled from the island in the days that follow.
December 20 – The Puritan law enforcers of the Commonwealth of England raid the
Red Bull Theatre in
London for violations of the laws against performance of plays and arrest the actors, as well as confiscating their property.
December 30 – Chinese General
Geng Zhongming, having reported to the
Qing dynasty commanders to face charges of harboring runaway slaves during his fight against the
Southern Ming dynasty troops, commits suicide while waiting for a verdict in his court-martial. (1943). [92] His son,
Geng Jimao, continues to fight against the Southern Ming.
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^James W. Davidson, The Island of Formosa: Historical View from 1430 to 1900 (Macmillian, 1903) p.22
^John W. Dardess, Ming China, 1368-1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire (Rowman & Littlefield, 2012) p. 132
^John Grehan and Martin Mace, Battleground Sussex: A Military History of Sussex from the Iron Age to the Present Day (Pen & Sword, 2012) pp. 86-87
^"Tasman, Abel", by Carl Waldman, in Biographical Dictionary of Explorers, ed. by Alan Wexler and Jon Cunningham (Infobase Publishing, 2019) p. 798
^"Abatai", by L. Carrington Goodrich, in Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period, 1644-1912, by Arthur W. Hummel (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1943) pp. 3-4
^James Dallaway, A History of the Western Division of the County of Sussex (T. Bensley, 1815) pp.13-14
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abBaker, Christopher (2002). Absolutism and the scientific revolution, 1600-1720 : a biographical dictionary. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p. 370.
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^"The Making of the Westminster Confession, and Especially of Its Chapter on the Decree of God", The Presbyterian and Reformed Review (April 1901) p. 253
^Manganiello, Stephen (2004). The concise encyclopedia of the revolutions and wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639-1660. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press. p. 450.
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abM. A. Richardson, The Local Historian's Table Book of Remarkable Occurrences... Connected with the Counties of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northumberland, and Durham (M. A. Richardson, 1841) p. 277
^Palmer, Alan; Palmer, Veronica (1992). The Chronology of British History. London: Century Ltd. pp. 181–182.
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^The Work of the Westminster Assembly John Murray, (The Presbyterian Guardian 1942)
^History of the Great Civil War vol. iii, S.R. Gardiner (London 1889)
^ Frederic Wakeman, The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China (University of California Press, 1985) p. 738
^Wyndham Sydney Boundy, Bushell and Harman of Lundy (Gazette Printing Service, 1961)
^Sir Edward Cust, Lives of the Warriors of the Thirty Years' War: Warriors of the 17th Century (John Murray Publishing, 1865) pp. 457-458
^Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Scotland 1644–1651, David Stevenson (Newton Abbott 1977)
^
abGary S. De Krey, Following the Levellers: Political and Religious Radicals in the English Civil War and Revolution, 1645–1649 (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2018) p. 114
^ "Stuyvesant, Petrus", by Bruce Vandervort, The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History, ed. by Spencer Tucker (ABC-CLIO, 2011) p. 767 had arrived on May 11.
^The New Aberystwyth Guide, by T. J. Llewelyn Prichard (Lewis Jones, Bookseller, 1824) p. 28
^Major-General Sir John Henry Lefroy, Memorials of the Discovery and Early Settlement of the Bermudas or Somers Islands 1515-1685 (Bermuda Historical Society, 1877, reprinted by University of Toronto Press, 1981)
^Winstanley 'The Law of Freedom' and Other Writings, ed. by Christopher Hill (Cambridge University Press, 2006) p. 72
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^The Finnish article says that the town had existed as Koppöstad since the 13th century and that it was renamed by Governor-General Brahe on March 1, 1651
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^Eduardo, Leigh (2005). Mistresses : true stories of seduction, power and ambition. London: Michael O'Mara. p. 46.
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^"Anthony van Dyck". Netherlands Institute of Art. Retrieved March 20, 2021.
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^Archaeologia Cambrensis: the journal of the Cambrian Archaeological Association. Cambrian Archaeological Association. 1859. p. 72.
^Quevedo, FirstName (2009). Selected poetry of Francisco de Quevedo : a bilingual edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 15.
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^The Downside Review, Volumes 47–48. Downside Abbey. 1978. p. 2.
^Vernon F. Snow (1970). Essex the rebel; the life of Robert Devereux, the third Earl of Essex, 1591-1646. University of Nebraska Press. p. 487.
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