July – The Crusaders, led by the
Knights Hospitaller, raid
Burlus, located in the
Nile Delta in
Egypt. The town is pillaged, but the knights are ambushed on their return, and several Hospitallers, including Grand Master
Guérin de Montaigu, are captured. Meanwhile, Sultan
Al-Kamil sends an Egyptian squadron down the
Rosetta branch of the
Nile. It sails to
Cyprus, where it finds a Crusader fleet lying off
Limassol. During the attack, they sink and capture all the ships, taking many thousands of prisoners.[1]
Summer – The Crusader army is trapped by a Nile flood at
Damietta. Cardinal
Pelagius sends a Venetian squadron to intercept the Egyptian fleet, and attacks the harbours of Rosetta and
Alexandria, but to no effect. Lack of money prevents Pelagius from building a sufficient number of ships, and the papal treasury can not spare him anymore. In September more of the Crusaders return home.[2]
Mongol Empire
Spring – The Mongol army (some 100,000 men) led by
Genghis Khan crosses the
Kyzylkum Desert – a freezing sand-and-tussock wilderness of some 450 kilometers – towards
Bukhara. Meanwhile,
Muhammad II, ruler of the
Khwarazmian Empire, prepares a strong defense around his capital
Samarkand. In February, Genghis approaches Bukhara, which is defended by a garrison of some 20,000 men, and begins the
Siege of Bukhara. The city leaders open the gates to the Mongols, but Turkish forces who defend the city's citadel hold out for another twelve days.[3] In a speech at the city's Friday Mosque, Genghis declares "I am the punishment of God."[4]
March – Mongol forces led by Genghis Khan besiege Samarkand, the city is defended by some 40,000 men, including a brigade of 20 war elephants. On the third day, the garrison launches a counter-attack, the defenders sent out their elephants, which panic, turn and trample their own men before escaping onto the open plain. Muhammad II attempts to relieve Samarkand twice but is driven back. After a week, the remainder of the garrison surrenders. The city's inhabitants, numbering some 100,000 are enslaved or slaughtered.[5]
Summer – Muhammad II flees westwards across northern
Iran, hoping to find safety in the rugged and isolated region of
Mazandaran on the southern coast of the
Caspian Sea. He is pursued by 20,000 Mongol forces led by
Subutai and
Jebe (the Arrow). Abandoned by the remnants of his panic-stricken troops, Muhammad seeks shelter on a small island near
Astara. There he dies of
pleurisy some weeks later. He is succeeded by his son
Jalal al-Din Mangburni, who is forced to flee to
India after the
Mongol invasion (see
1219).[6]
Autumn – Genghis Khan moves against the wealthy city of
Urgench. He is joined by his eldest son
Jochi, now conqueror of half a dozen lesser towns who attacks it from the north. Despite a stout defense, the city is taken after a 5-months siege. The Mongols have to fight for Urgench street by street, razing many houses. Jochi is given the right to loot the city for himself, but prefers to negotiate with the locals to avoid property damage. This is refused by Genghis, who removes Jochi from command and appoints
Ögedei instead.[7]
November – Genghis Khan dispatches his youngest son
Tolui, at the head of an army (around 50,000 men), into the Khwarazmian province of
Khorasan. His forces also include 300 catapults, 700
mangonels to discharge pots filled with
naphtha, 4,000 storming-ladders, and 2,500 sacks of earth for filling up moats. Among the first cities to fall is
Termez (captured after a two-day siege) and later
Balkh.[8]
United Kingdom
Spring – King
Henry III makes large alterations to the
Tower of London including new curtain walls, an improved water-filled ditch, and a water gate, so that he can enter the castle directly from the
Thames.
May 17 – The 12-year-old Henry III is crowned at
Westminster Abbey. He is reminded of his duties as king to maintain peace, defend the rights of the English crown, and the barons swear an oath of fealty.
August 8 –
Battle of Lihula: Estonian forces encircle the
Lihula stronghold, occupied by an invading Swedish Crusader army. The Swedish troops along with
Charles the Deaf try to make their way out, but they are killed.
November – Emperor
Theodore I (Laskaris) dies after a 16-year reign and is succeeded by his son-in-law
John III (Doukas). John fends off Theodore's brothers, who believe that they have the better claim for the throne of the
Empire of Nicaea. In December, he becomes the sole ruler, and during his reign, the Empire becomes the most powerful of the Byzantine successor states and the frontrunner in the race to recover
Constantinople from the
Latin Empire.[12] John also cultivates a close relationship with Emperor
Frederick II and negotiates with Pope
Honorius III about the possibility of reuniting the Church.
Fifth Crusade
June – Sultan
Al-Kamil again offers peace terms to Cardinal
Pelagius with the cession of
Jerusalem and all
Palestine apart from
Oultrejordain, together with a 30 years' truce and money compensation for the dismantling of Jerusalem. Meanwhile, a German contingent under
Louis I of Bavaria arrives at
Damietta, with orders from Frederick II not to launch an attack on
Cairo until the emperor's arrival. Louis and Pelagius decide to advance into
Egypt towards
Mansoura, where Al-Kamil has built a fortress to protect Cairo. The Crusaders assemble their armies and tents are set up just up the
Nile, on
June 29.[13]
July 4 – Pelagius orders a three-days fast in preparation for the advance. King
John I of Jerusalem arrives at Damietta, to rejoin the Crusade at the command of Honorius III. The Crusader force moves towards
Sheremsah, halfway between
Faraskur and Mansoura on the east bank of the Nile, occupying the city on
July 12. Sources tell of 630 ships of various sizes, 5,000 knights, 4,000 archers, and 40,000 men. A horde of pilgrims march with the army. They are ordered to keep close to the river, to supply the Crusaders with water. Pelagius plans a new offensive and leaves a large garrison at Damietta.[14]
July 24 – Pelagius moves the Crusader forces near
Ashmun al-Rumman, on the opposite bank from Mansoura. Queen-Regent
Alice of Cyprus and leaders of the military orders warn Pelagius of a large Muslim army being formed in
Syria. Meanwhile, the Egyptian army under Al-Kamil crosses the Nile near
Lake Manzaleh and establishes themselves between the Crusader camp and Damietta. In the Ushmum canal at Sheremsah, Al-Kamil's ships sail down the Nile and block the Crusaders' line of communications to Damietta. In August, Pelagius orders a retreat, but the route is cut off by Egyptians.[15]
Battle of Mansoura: The Crusader army led by Pelagius and John I of Jerusalem is defeated by the Egyptian forces at Mansoura. John and the military orders fight a last stand on the river banks of the Nile. He beats off a Nubian assault (supported by elite Turkish cavalry) and drives them back, but only after thousands of soldiers have perished. The remaining Crusaders are surrounded by Al-Kamil's forces and begin a desperate retreat to Damietta. The city is well-garrisoned and supplied with arms, a naval squadron under
Henry (or Enrico Pescatore) defends the harbour against the Egyptians.[16]
August 26 – The Crusaders retreat under cover of darkness. Many of the soldiers can not bear to abandon their stores of wine, and drink them all rather than leave them. The
Teutonic Knights set fire to the stores that they can not carry, thus informing the Egyptians that they are abandoning their positions. In the meantime, Al-Kamil orders to open the sluices along the right bank of the Nile, flooding the area. Pelagius on his ship is carried by the floodwaters past the blockading Egyptian fleet. Other ships, carrying the medical supplies of the army and much of its food, escape. But many are captured.[17]
August 28 – Pelagius sues for peace and sends an envoy to Al-Kamil. The terms of surrender are accepted, which includes the retreat from Damietta – leaving Egypt with the remnants of the Crusader army and an 8-year truce. After the prisoners are exchanged on both sides, Al-Kamil enters Damietta on
September 8. The
Fifth Crusade ends with nothing gained for the West, with much lost, men, resources and reputations. The Crusaders blame Frederick II for not being there. Pelagius is accused of ineffectual leadership and a misguided view, which has led to rejecting the sultan's peace offerings.[18]
Mongol Empire
Spring –
Genghis Khan orders an armed reconnaissance expedition into the
Caucasus (consisting of
Georgia and
Armenia) under the command of
Subutai and
Jebe (the Arrow). The Mongols defeat two Georgian armies around
Tbilisi, but lack the will or equipment to siege the capital city. During the fighting, King
George IV himself is severely wounded and his elite knights are massacred. The Mongols then return to
Azerbaijan and
Persia, and burn and pillage a few more cities. In October, the Mongol army raids Georgia for the second time, and Subutai and Jebe allow their forces to pass through the
Caucasus Mountains.[19]
Battle of Parwan: Sultan
Jalal al-Din Mangburni recruits an army of Turkic and Afghan warriors numbering some 60,000 men. As soon as news of this reaches Genghis Khan he sends a Mongol army of 30,000 men, led by his stepbrother
Shikhikhutug. Meanwhile, Jalal al-Din moves to
Parwan (modern
Afghanistan), where the two armies meet in a narrow valley. Jalal al-Din takes the initiative, ordering his right-wing of Turks to dismount and engage in a skirmish. On the third day, the Mongols are finally defeated by the Khwarezmian forces and are forced to retreat. Shikhikhutug is driven off in defeat, losing over half his army.[20]
February – The cities of
Merv,
Herat and
Nishapur who have peacefully surrendered rise up in arms. Genghis Khan sends his son
Tolui to spend an extra month to subdue the revolts. Contemporary scholars report over a million people are systematically killed in a
genocide. Meanwhile, left with some 20,000 men Jalal al-Din Mangburni heads for the
Indus River to find refuge in
India. During autumn, Genghis makes his way to Parwan and catches up to Jalal al-Din at the Indus River. In a
desperate battle on
November 24 the Khwarezmain forces are destroyed, while Jalal al-Din flees across the river and escapes into India.[21]
Europe
June 16 – In
Germany, the Jewish population is massacred at
Erfurt, after a
ritual murder libel. A crowd storms the synagogue where the Jews have gathered. The threat is
baptism or death. The Jewish quarter, including the synagogue, is razed: many Jews are tortured and killed.
Siege of Tallinn: An Estonian Crusader army tries to conquer the Danish stronghold of
Tallinn with the help of
Revalians,
Harrians and
Vironians. They besiege the stronghold for 14 days but finally retreat their forces.
After the invasion and destruction of the
Khwarezmian Empire in
1221,
Genghis Khan returns to Mongolia, and a rebellion sparks in
Helmand, to which the response is a large army led by
Ögedei Khan sent into the region to put an end to the rebellion of Muhammad the Marghani, resulting in the killing of every man in
Ghazni and
Helmand, and the enslavement and selling of most of the women of the region.
Genghis Khan’s armies were said to have killed approximately 1.6 million people in the city of
Herat, in Northwestern Afghanistan.[29]
May 9 –
Synod of Oxford - The 1222 Christian Synod of Oxford passed anti-Semitic laws that forbade social interactions between Jews and Christians, placed a specific tithe on Jews and required them to wear an identifying badge.[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44]
Spring – The Polovtsian army assembles on the
Terek River lowlands and are joined by
Alan,
Circassian, and Don Kipchak/
Cuman forces. The Mongol army crosses the
Caucasus Mountains, but is trapped in the narrow mountain passes. The Mongol generals
Subutai and
Jebe (the Arrow) send an embassy to the Polovtsians and convince them to break their alliance with the Caucasian peoples. The Mongol cavalry invades the
Caucasus region and devastates the local villages, seizing slaves, cattle and horses.[61]
The Mongol army invades Polovtsian territory and defeats the Polovtsians in a great battle near the
Don River. Several Polovtsian leaders are killed – while the remainder flees westwards, across the
Dnieper River, to seek support by various Russian princes. Steppe lands east of the Dnieper fall under Mongol control, Subutai and Jebe raise the wealthy city of
Astrakhan on the
Volga River. Subutai now parts his forces, he moves south to the
Crimea (or Tauric Peninsula), while Jebe travels towards the Dnieper.[62]
Mongol forces capture the nominally Genoese trading outpost of
Sudak, probably with the tacit approval of neighbouring rival Venetian outposts in the Crimea. Subutai promises to destroy any non-Venetian colonies in the area. In return, the Venetians provide Subutai with information about the kingdoms in
Eastern Europe. Meanwhile,
Köten Khan, Cuman/Kipchak chieftain of the Polovtsians, convinces Prince
Mstislav Mstislavich of
Galicia to form an alliance, and informs him of his plight against the Mongols.[63]
February – A council of Russian princes summons at
Kiev; several princes are convinced by Köten Khan to assemble an allied army to drive the Mongols back. During the first half of March, Russian princes return to their principalities and begin to raise forces for the forthcoming campaign. The alliance has a combined force of some 60,000 men, mainly cavalry. Subutai unites his army with Jebe, and sends ambassadors to the
Kievan Rus' princes, to tell them to stay out of the conflict as it didn't involve them.[63]
April – The Russian princes lead their separate armies from different parts of
Russia, to assemble 60 kilometres downriver from Kiev. There are three main groups of princes taking part in the campaign; the Kievan army is represented by Grand Prince
Mstislav Romanovich (the Old). The second group are the
Chernigov and
Smolensk armies under Prince
Mstislav II. The third group is the Galician-Volhynian army under Mstislav Mstislavich with his son-in-law
Daniel of Galicia, leaving from northern
Ukraine.[64]
The Mongol leaders Subutai and Jebe receive news that
Jochi, who camps north of the
Caspian Sea, will not be able to provide the expected reinforcements due to Jochi's reported illness or suspected refusal to obey his father
Genghis Khan's orders. Subutai sends an embassy to the Russian princes, to offer peace and perhaps attempt to break the Russian alliance with the Polovtsians. But the Mongol ambassadors are executed – a task eagerly carried out by Köten Khan's followers, by the end of April.[64]
Late
April – The Russian and Polovtsian armies march down the west bank of the Dnieper River. Within a few days of the march beginning, a second group of Mongol ambassadors appear in the Russian camp and again offer peace. When their offers are rebuffed, the ambassadors are allowed to leave unharmed. Meanwhile, Russian forces from Galicia arrive by boat or cart-loads of equipment and food, along the
Black Sea coast and up the Dnieper River, screened by Mongol forces on the east bank.[63]
Late
May – The Mongol army under Subutai and Jebe establishes a defensive position on the Kalka River. Increasing disagreements amongst the Russian princes, about the wisdom of continuing to pursue the Mongols deeper into the steppes. By the end of May, the allied forces reach the banks of the Kalka River. The Polovtsian vanguard is way ahead of the rest of the Russian army, which gives them a triumphant feeling. Meanwhile, Subutai and Jebe set up a trap against the Russian forces.[65]
June – Mstislav Mstislavich escapes back to the Dnieper River with the remnants of his Galician army. Mstislav Romanovich (the Old) surrenders and is executed. According to sources, he and other Russian nobles are slowly suffocated to death during a Mongol 'drunken feast', they are tied up and laid flat on the ground beneath what is described as a wooden 'bridge' (or platform), on which Subutai, Jebe and their officers feast. This is revenge for killing the Mongol ambassadors.[66]
Battle of Samara Bend: A Volga-Bulgarian army under
Ghabdula Chelbir defeats the Mongols, probably led by Subutai, Jebe and Jochi. The Bulgars retreat during the battle but the Mongols pursue them. Then the main Bulgar forces ambush the Mongols. Subutai and Jebe retreat their forces near the city of
Sarai (future capital of the
Golden Horde), not far from where the Volga River empties into the Caspian Sea.[67]
Autumn – Mongol forces under Jochi, Subutai and Jebe attack and defeat the Qangl Turks (eastern Kipchaks or Wild Polovtsians), killing their ruler. During the winter, they continue eastwards across the
Great Steppe. Jebe (possibly poisoned) suddenly dies of a fever near the
Imil River.[68]
Spring – The Mongol army led by
Muqali (or Mukhali) strikes into
Shaanxi Province, attacking
Chang'an while Genghis khan is invading the
Khwarazmian Empire. The garrison (some 200,000 men) in Chang'an is too strong and Muqali is forced to pillage
Feng County. During the campaign, Muqali becomes seriously ill and dies, while his forces are consolidating their position on both sides of the
Yellow River.[69]
Autumn –
Subutai is assigned a new campaign by
Genghis Khan against the
Tanguts. He crosses the
Gobi Desert with a Mongol army and advances south into the
Western Xia (or Xi Xia). Meanwhile, Genghis, in his mid-sixties, becomes wounded during hunting. His injury – a dislocated shoulder, perhaps, or a bruised rib – forces him to take some rest.[70]
Iltutmish, Ghurid ruler of the
Delhi Sultanate, repels a Mongol attack and invades
Bengal. His rival,
Ghiyasuddin, leads an army to halt Iltutmish's advance, but decides to avoid a conflict by paying him tribute and accepting his suzerainty.[71]
February 11 – The
Charter of the Forest is restored to its traditional rights by King
Henry III. 'Free men' are allowed to find pasture for their pigs, collect firewood, graze animals, or cut turf for fuel. At this time, however, only about 10 percent of the population is 'free', the rest are locked into service to a local landowner, some of them little more than slaves.[74]
The
Magna Carta is reaffirmed (for the third time) by Henry III, in return for issuing a property tax. It becomes the definitive version of the text.[75]
The 8-year-old
Henry I (the Fat) is crowned as king of
Cyprus in the
Cathedral of Saint Sophia at
Nicosia. His uncle
Philip of Ibelin orders the coronation, so that when Henry comes of age at fifteen a regency could not be prolonged on the ground that he is not yet crowned.[76]
Siege of Avignon: Crusader forces under Louis VIII besiege
Avignon. They dig trenches facing the city walls – which are connected on both sides of the
Rhône with pontoon bridges. On
August 8, Louis launches an assault led by Count
Guy II of Saint-Pol, but the attackers are repulsed. After negotiations, the consuls agree to pay an indemnity of 6,000 marks. On
September 9, the gates are opened and Louis enters the city without violence.[78]
The
Teutonic Knights undertake a new Crusade, attempting to subdue the pagan
Prussians, who occupy a part of the Baltic coast. They are invited to
Poland by High Duke
Konrad I, a grandson of
Bolesław III (Wrymouth). Their task is to defend
Masovia against raids of the Prussians. After defeating them, the German knights set up their own state, which they named after the pagan people they have all but annihilated –
Prussia.[79]
Summer –
Genghis Khan starts a campaign against the
Tanguts, punishing the vassal kingdom of
Western Xia (or Xi Xia) for not contributing to the
Mongol invasions. He assembles a large force (some 100,000 men), and lays siege to
Liangzhou, second-largest city in Western Xia, which surrenders without resistance. In the autumn, Genghis crosses the
Helan Mountains, and in November he lays siege to
Lingwu. Meanwhile, Emperor
Xian Zong dies and is succeeded by his nephew
Mo (or Li Xian).[81]
March 26 – Emperor
Frederick II issues the
Golden Bull of Rimini, in which he grants Teutonic Knights the right to all of the lands they will get during the mission in
Prussia; he also considers himself a senior of the Teutonic Order and Poland, as well as the universal ruler of Christian
Europe.[84]
August – Emperor
Frederick II musters a German expeditionary force in
Apulia. The crowded conditions and high heat contribute to discontent and disease among the assembled troops. On
September 24, an epidemic of
malaria enfeebles the army at
Brindisi. Several thousand Crusaders led by
Henry IV, duke of
Limburg, and French and English mercenaries under the bishops
Peter des Roches and
William Briwere, arrive at
Acre.[85]
September – A second contingent joined by Frederick II, departs from Brindisi to the
Levant. On
September 11, during the second day of the voyage, one of Fredericks' companions,
Louis IV of Thuringia, dies of an illness (possibly
cholera) at
Otranto. Frederick also becomes sick and decides to return home, while sending the rest of the Crusader fleet (20 galleys) to Acre. There, they fortify the coastal towns of
Caesarea and
Jaffa.[86]
November 24 – Prince
Leszek I (the White) is assassinated in an ambush on a council of Polish dukes in the city of
Gąsawa, an event which later becomes known as the
Gąsawa Massacre.
Siege of Yinchuan: Mongol forces eliminate the
Western Xia (or Xi Xia) and execute Emperor
Mo (or Li Xian). Genghis Khan dies during the siege under debated circumstances, but this is kept secret from the army until the siege's end. Yinchuan is pillaged and its entire population is slaughtered or sold into
slavery. Genghis orders the imperial family to be executed, effectively ending the
Tangut royal lineage.[92]
August 18 – Genghis Khan dies during the fall of
Yinchuan after a 21-year reign. His exact cause of death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action against the Western Xia, illness, falling from his horse, or wounds sustained during
hunting. Genghis is succeeded by his third son, Ögedei Khan, who becomes the "Great Khan" of the
Mongol Empire.[93]
Summer – Emperor
Frederick II sails from
Brindisi with a expeditionary force and arrives in
Acre in the
Middle East on
September 7. He disembarks a well-trained and equipped Crusader army (some 10,000 men and 2,000 knights). After his arrival in
Palestine, Frederick is again excommunicated by Pope
Gregory IX, for setting out for the Crusade before he has obtained absolution from his previous ex-communication (see
1227). Many of the local nobility, the
Knights Templar and
Knights Hospitaller deny him their support for the Crusade. Frederick can only rely on his own army and the
Teutonic Knights, whose Grand Master,
Hermann von Salza, is his friend.[97]
Autumn – Frederick II receives an embassy of Sultan
Al-Kamil, including
Fakhr al-Din ibn as-Shaikh, at the Hospitaller camp at
Recordane, near Acre. Meanwhile, Al-Kamil is engaged in suppressing a rebellion in
Syria and has concentrated his forces on a siege at
Damascus. Frederick is pressed for time, because his army is not large enough for a major campaign. Al-Kamil, who has full control of
Jerusalem, starts diplomatic negotiations.[98]
November – Frederick II puts pressure on the negotiations by a military display. He assembles his Crusader army and marches down the coast to
Jaffa – which he proceeds to refortify. At the same moment, Ayyubid forces under
An-Nasir Dawud, who are not participating in the revolt at Damascus, move to
Nablus, to intercept Al-Kamil's supply lines. Al-Kamil breaks off the negotiations, saying that the Crusaders have pillaged several Muslim villages, and only resumes them again when Frederick pays out compensation to the victims.[99]
Europe
April 25 – The 16-year-old
Isabella II, Holy Roman Empress and wife of Frederick II, dies after giving birth to her second child,
Conrad IV, at
Andria. He receives the title
King of Jerusalem (as Conrad II) – with Frederick as
regent. By his father, Conrad is the grandson of the
Hohenstaufen Emperor
Henry VI and great-grandson of the late Emperor
Frederick I (Barbarossa).
King
James I (the Conqueror) launches a major offensive against the Almohads in
Majorca. At the same moment, Emir Ibn Hud al-Yamadi (confronted by increasing Christian pressure) denounces Almohad rule in
Murcia (modern
Spain) and acknowledges the
Abbasid Caliphate as legitimate overlord, in effect declaring independence.[100] Other notable Christian success: King
Alfonso IX of León conquers
Mérida.[80]
The city of
Tournai emits its first recorded
life annuity, thus confirming a trend of consolidation of public debts started
ten years earlier, in
Reims.[102]
The first evidence is uncovered of the use of the Knights Templar as cashiers by King
Henry III of England, to safely transfer important sums to the continent, using letters of exchange. This shows that large transfers could take place across
Europe, even before the emergence of important networks of Italian
merchant-bankers.[103]
February 18 –
Treaty of Jaffa: Emperor
Frederick II signs a 10-year truce together with Sultan
Al-Kamil and his representatives; he manages to regain many parts of the
Holy Land through political negotiation, rather than by resorting to military force or directly confronting the Muslim army. Frederick's achievements, including the control of
Jerusalem (without the
Temple Mount) and
Bethlehem, with a corridor running through
Lydda to the sea of
Jaffa, as well as
Nazareth and western
Galilee, including
Montfort Castle and
Toron, and the remaining Muslim districts around
Sidon. All Muslims are to be allowed the right of entry in Jerusalem and freedom of worship.[104]
March 17 – Frederick II enters Jerusalem, escorted by German and Italian troops. Of the Military Orders only the
Teutonic Knights are represented and some clergy. He receives the formal surrender of the city by Al-Kamil's governor (or Qadi), who hands him the keys of Jerusalem. The procession then passes through streets to the old building of the Hospital (or the
Muristan), where Frederick takes up his residence in the
Christian Quarter.[105]
March 18 – Frederick II crowns himself as
King of Jerusalem in an impromptu ceremony in the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre. After the ceremony, he proceeds to the palace of the
Hospitallers – where he holds a council to discuss the defense of Jerusalem. Frederick orders the
Tower of David and the
Gate of St. Stephen are to be repaired at once and he hands over the royal residence attached to the Tower of David to the Teutonic Order.[106]
May 1 – Frederick II departs from
Acre, while he and his suite pass down the "Street of the Butchers" to the harbour, the people crowd out of the doors, and pelts him with entrails and dung. Meanwhile,
Odo of Montbéliard (or Eudes), commander of the Crusader army, and
John of Ibelin, lord of
Beirut, are left behind to quell the unrest in
Palestine.[107]
May – Frederick II arrives at
Cyprus, where he attends the wedding proxy of the 12-year-old King
Henry I (the Fat) to
Alice of Montferrat – whose father is one of his staunch supporters in
Italy. On
June 10, Frederick lands at
Brindisi, where the papal army under his father-in-law
John of Brienne has invaded the Italian territories in
Campania.[108]
Autumn – Frederick II recovers the lost Italian territories and tries to condemn the leading rebel barons, but avoids crossing the frontiers of the
Papal States. Meanwhile, a first serious raid on Jerusalem is made by a mass of unorganized
Beduins and plunderers of pilgrims. An advance guard encouraged the Christians to expel the Muslims.[109]
Europe
March 6 –
University of Paris strike: Students begin to riot, after a dispute over a bill with a tavern proprietor. Queen
Blanche of Castile demands retribution, and allows the city guard to punish the student rioters. She puts an economic strain upon the student quarter of
Paris (the
Latin Quarter), where
Latin is commonly heard in the streets.
April 12 –
Treaty of Paris: Count
Raymond VII is forced to sign a peace treaty (also known as the "Treaty of Meaux"). This brings the
Albigensian Crusade to an end. Raymond regains his feudal rights but has to swear his allegiance to King
Louis IX (the Saint). The fortifications, such as these of
Avignon and
Toulouse, are dismantled.[110]
November 28 – Battle of Olustra:
Eric XI (the Lisp and Lame) is defeated and deposed as king of
Sweden by
Canute II (the Tall), who proclaims himself the new ruler.
England
October 13 – King
Henry III calls for an army to be assembled at
Portsmouth to be transported to
Normandy to regain lost territories from the French. A large army of knights turns up ready to go but not enough ships have been provided. Henry blames
Hubert de Burgh for the fiasco and in his rage will have killed him if
Ranulf of Chester has not intervened. This marks the beginning of the rift between Henry and Hubert de Burgh. Meanwhile, the expedition is postponed until mid-
1230.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 140–141.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 141.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Maalouf, Amin (2006). The Crusades through Arab Eyes, pp. 225–226. Saqi Books.
ISBN978-0-863-56023-1.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 141–142.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 142–143.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 207.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Tanner, Stephen (2009). Afghanistan - A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban, p. 94. Da Capo Press.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 205–206.
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^Rayborn, Tim (9 October 2014). "Popular Religion, Heresy and Mendicancy". Against the Friars: Antifraternalism in Medieval France and England. McFarland. p. 17.
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^Francisco Márquez Villanueva; Carlos Alberto Vega (1990). Alfonso X of Castile, the learned king, 1221-1284: an international symposium, Harvard University, 17 November 1984. Dept. of Romance Languages and Literatures of Harvard University. p. 165.
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^Barker, John W. (2016) [2004]. Kleinhenz, Christopher (ed.).
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