China was a
monarchy from prehistoric times up to 1912, when a
republic was established. The succession of
legendary monarchs of China were non-hereditary.
Dynastic rule began
c. 2070 BC when
Yu the Great established the
Xia dynasty,[d] and monarchy lasted until 1912 when dynastic rule
collapsed together with the monarchical government.[5] Various attempts at preserving and restoring the Chinese monarchy occurred during and following the Xinhai Revolution, but these regimes were short-lived and lacked widespread recognition.
The monarchy of China took the form of
absolute monarchy during most of its existence, even though the actual power of the
ruler varied depending on his/her ability to consolidate the rule and various other factors. On 3 November 1911, the Qing dynasty issued the constitutional
Nineteen Creeds which limited the power of the emperor, marking the official transition to a
constitutional monarchy. However, after only 3 months, the monarchy was abolished.[6][7]
During periods of political disunity, China was divided among competing dynasties that often claimed exclusive Chinese politico-cultural orthodoxy; in such cases, more than one Chinese monarchy existed simultaneously. Throughout
Chinese history, there were monarchs of both ethnic
Han and non-Han origins, including many who were of mixed heritage.[8]
Territorial domains
Approximate territories ruled by the Chinese monarchy throughout history
The Chinese monarchy reached its largest territorial extent under either the
Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[24][25][26][27][28] This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan dynasty: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of
Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the
Arctic coast.[29][30][31] Contrastingly, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, including the
Treaty of Nerchinsk and the
Treaty of Kyakhta, and thus were more well-defined. The total area under the control of the Qing dynasty amounted to more than 13 million km2 at its
peak.[32][33][34]
Apart from exercising direct control over the Chinese realm, the Chinese monarchy also maintained hegemony over other states through the
Chinese tributary system.[35] The Chinese tributary system had its roots during the
Western Han dynasty and lasted until the 19th century AD when the
Sinocentric order collapsed.[36][37]
Since the establishment of the Xia dynasty, China had been ruled by a succession of dynasties. A recurring theme in Chinese history, dynastic transitions occurred typically as a result of military conquest or usurpation. Historians often seek to account for Chinese dynastic transitions using the concept of
dynastic cycle.[38][39][40]
In history, China was ruled by dynasties of various ethnic origins.[8] Although it is a common practice in
Chinese historiography to label a particular dynasty as being ruled by a specific ethnicity, there were Chinese monarchs who had mixed heritage. For instance, the
Emperor Xiaoming of the
Xianbei-led
Northern Wei dynasty was of mixed Xianbei and Han heritage; he obtained his Han ancestry from his mother, the
Empress Ling.[41] Similarly, the
Kangxi Emperor of the
Manchu-led Qing dynasty was of mixed Manchu and Han descent; he acquired his Han ancestry from his mother, the
Empress Xiaokangzhang.[42] Therefore, the ethnic identity of the ruling families as assigned by historians should not be regarded as absolute.
On 10 October 1911, the
Wuchang Uprising broke out in modern-day
Wuhan, marking the start of the Xinhai Revolution.[43] Led by the
Tongmenghui, the predecessor of the
Kuomintang, the Xinhai Revolution soon spread to other parts of China. On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was proclaimed by
Sun Yat-sen in
Nanjing.[44] On 12 February 1912, the
Xuantong Emperor abdicated, marking the end of the Qing dynasty and the Chinese monarchy altogether.[43]
According to the theory of the
succession of states and Chinese historiographical tradition, the
Republic of China is accepted as the legitimate successor to the Qing dynasty and the Chinese monarchy. In particular, the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor issued by the
Empress Dowager Longyu provided the legal basis for the Republic of China to inherit all territories of the Qing dynasty and to preserve the territorial integrity of the new Chinese state.[45][46][47]
During and after the Xinhai Revolution, there were various attempts at reviving the Chinese monarchy. All these attempts ultimately ended in failure.
Emperorship by Duke of Yansheng or Marquis of Extended Grace
During the
Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (孔令貽), a 76th-generation descendant of
Confucius and the
Duke of Yansheng, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by
Liang Qichao.[49] Meanwhile, gentry in
Anhui and
Hebei supported a restoration of the
Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (朱煜勳), the
Marquis of Extended Grace.[50] Both suggestions failed to materialize. In the year of 1937, the Japanese during their conquest of China offered the position of "Emperor of China" to the Duke of Yansheng,
Kung Te-cheng, but he declined the offer.
The following is a list of pretenders to the abolished Chinese throne from the
Aisin Gioro clan, the ruling house of the Qing dynasty and the Manchukuo.[f]
^The last ruler of the Chinese monarchy is disputed. Aisin Gioro Puyi (reigning as the Xuantong Emperor) was the final emperor of the
Qing dynasty, the last dynasty with orthodox status in
Chinese historiography, from 2 December 1908 to 12 February 1912. He was reinstalled as emperor of the Qing dynasty in the
Manchu Restoration between 1 July 1917 and 12 July 1917. He later became emperor of
Manchukuo, a puppet state of the
Empire of Japan, from 1 March 1934 to 17 August 1945. Both the Manchu Restoration and his reign in Manchukuo are not widely recognized as legitimate in Chinese historiography.
Yuan Shikai was the founder and the only emperor of the
Empire of China from 12 December 1915 to 22 March 1916 as the Hongxian Emperor, but is usually not recognized as legitimate in Chinese historiography. Therefore, Aisin Gioro Puyi is usually considered the last monarch of China for his first reign between 1908 and 1912 in the Qing dynasty.
^The
Qing dynasty, the last dynasty with orthodox status in Chinese historiography, collapsed on 12 February 1912 with the issuance of the
Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor. The Qing dynasty was briefly restored in an episode known as the
Manchu Restoration in 1917. The
Empire of China existed from 1915 to 1916.
Manchukuo, a puppet state of the Empire of Japan, existed as a monarchy from 1934 to 1945. However, the Manchu Restoration, the Empire of China, and Manchukuo are not widely considered as legitimate in Chinese historiography. Therefore, the Chinese monarchy is usually regarded as having ended in 1912 as a result of the
Xinhai Revolution.
^The Forbidden City in
Beijing was the seat of government and the main residence of Chinese monarchs of the
Qing dynasty, the last dynasty with orthodox status in Chinese historiography, from 1644 to 1912.
^
abThe
Xia dynasty is typically considered the first dynasty of China in orthodox Chinese historiography. However, sources such as the Book of Documents record two dynasties—"Ancient Tang" (古唐) and "
Yu" (虞)—that existed before the Xia dynasty.[1][2][3][4] Whereas traditional sources disagree on the year of establishment of the Xia dynasty, the
Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project commissioned by the government of the
People's Republic of China identified it as 2070 BCE.
^"His/Her Imperial Majesty" is the common English translation of the style of Chinese monarchs with imperial ranks. Rulers of lesser ranks were styled differently.
^Many members and descendants of the
Aisin Gioro family adopted the surname Jin (金) after the collapse of the
Qing dynasty.