Magnesium is a
chemical element; it has
symbolMg and
atomic number 12. It is a shiny gray metal having a low density, low melting point and high chemical reactivity. Like the other
alkaline earth metals (group 2 of the
periodic table) it occurs naturally only in combination with other elements and it almost always has an
oxidation state of +2. It reacts readily with air to form a thin
passivation coating of
magnesium oxide that inhibits further corrosion of the metal. The free metal burns with a brilliant-white light. The metal is obtained mainly by
electrolysis of magnesium
salts obtained from
brine. It is less dense than
aluminium and is used primarily as a component in strong and lightweight
alloys that contain aluminium.
In the
cosmos, magnesium is produced in large, aging
stars by the sequential addition of three
helium nuclei to a
carbon nucleus. When such stars explode as
supernovas, much of the magnesium is expelled into the
interstellar medium where it may recycle into new star systems. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the
Earth's crust[13] and the fourth most common element in the Earth (after
iron,
oxygen and
silicon), making up 13% of the planet's mass and a large fraction of the planet's
mantle. It is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater, after
sodium and
chlorine.[14]
This element is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in the
human body and is essential to all cells and some 300
enzymes.[15] Magnesium ions interact with
polyphosphate compounds such as
ATP,
DNA, and
RNA. Hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function. Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as common
laxatives and
antacids (such as
milk of magnesia), and to stabilize abnormal nerve excitation or blood vessel spasm in such conditions as
eclampsia.[15]
Characteristics
Physical properties
Elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium. Magnesium has the lowest melting (923 K (650 °C)) and the lowest boiling point (1,363 K (1,090 °C)) of all the alkaline earth metals.[16]
Pure polycrystalline magnesium is brittle and easily fractures along
shear bands. It becomes much more
malleable when alloyed with small amounts of other metals, such as 1% aluminium.[17] The malleability of polycrystalline magnesium can also be significantly improved by reducing its grain size to ca. 1 micron or less.[18]
When finely powdered, magnesium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas:
However, this reaction is much less dramatic than the reactions of the alkali metals with water, because the magnesium hydroxide builds up on the surface of the magnesium metal and inhibits further reaction.[19]
Chemical properties
General chemistry
It
tarnishes slightly when exposed to air, although, unlike the heavier
alkaline earth metals, an oxygen-free environment is unnecessary for storage because magnesium is protected by a thin layer of oxide that is fairly impermeable and difficult to remove.[20]
Direct reaction of magnesium with air or oxygen at ambient pressure forms only the "normal" oxide MgO. However, this oxide may be combined with hydrogen peroxide to form
magnesium peroxide, MgO2, and at low temperature the peroxide may be further reacted with ozone to form magnesium superoxide Mg(O2)2.[21]
Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a similar group 2 metal.[20] When submerged in water,
hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the metal; this reaction happens much more rapidly with powdered magnesium.[20] The reaction also occurs faster with higher temperatures (see
§ Safety precautions). Magnesium's reversible reaction with water can be harnessed to store energy and run a
magnesium-based engine. Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids such as
hydrochloric acid (HCl), producing
magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with aluminium, zinc, and many other metals.[22]
Flammability
Magnesium is highly
flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, though it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk.[20] Flame temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach 3,100 °C (5,610 °F),[23] although flame height above the burning metal is usually less than 300 mm (12 in).[24] Once ignited, such fires are difficult to extinguish because they resist several substances commonly used to put out fires; combustion continues in
nitrogen (forming
magnesium nitride), in
carbon dioxide (forming
magnesium oxide and
carbon), and in water (forming magnesium oxide and hydrogen, which also combusts due to heat in the presence of additional oxygen). This property was used in incendiary weapons during the
firebombing of cities in
World War II, where the only practical
civil defense was to smother a burning flare under dry sand to exclude atmosphere from the combustion.
Magnesium may also be used as an igniter for
thermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powder that ignites only at a very high temperature.
A prominent organomagnesium reagent beyond Grignard reagents is
magnesium anthracene, with magnesium forming a 1,4-bridge over the central ring. It is used as a source of highly active magnesium. The related
butadiene-magnesium adduct serves as a source for the butadiene dianion.
Magnesium in organic chemistry also appears as
low valent magnesium compounds, primarily with the magnesium forming diatomic ions in the +1 oxidation state but more recently also with zero oxidation state or a mixture of +1 and zero states.[25] Such compounds find synthetic application as reducing agents and sources of nucleophilic metal atoms.
Source of light
When burning in air, magnesium produces a brilliant white light that includes strong ultraviolet wavelengths. Magnesium powder (
flash powder) was used for subject illumination in the early days of
photography.[26][27] Later, magnesium filament was used in electrically ignited single-use photography
flashbulbs. Magnesium powder is used in
fireworks and marine
flares where a brilliant white light is required. It was also used for various theatrical effects,[28] such as lightning,[29] pistol flashes,[30] and supernatural appearances.[31]
Detection in solution
The presence of magnesium ions can be detected by the addition of
ammonium chloride,
ammonium hydroxide and
monosodium phosphate to an aqueous or dilute HCl solution of the salt. The formation of a white precipitate indicates the presence of magnesium ions.
Azo violet dye can also be used, turning deep blue in the presence of an alkaline solution of magnesium salt. The color is due to the
adsorption of azo violet by
Mg(OH)2.
Magnesium is the eighth-most-abundant element in the Earth's crust by mass and tied in seventh place with
iron in
molarity.[13] It is found in large deposits of
magnesite,
dolomite, and other
minerals, and in mineral waters, where magnesium ion is soluble.[32]
The Mg2+ cation is the second-most-abundant cation in seawater (about 1⁄8 the mass of sodium ions in a given sample), which makes seawater and sea salt attractive commercial sources for Mg. To extract the magnesium,
calcium hydroxide is added to
seawater to form
magnesium hydroxideprecipitate.[34]
As of 2013, magnesium alloys consumption was less than one million tonnes per year, compared with 50 million tonnes of
aluminium alloys. Their use has been historically limited by the tendency of Mg alloys to corrode,[37]creep at high temperatures, and combust.[38]
Corrosion
In magnesium alloys, the presence of
iron,
nickel,
copper, or
cobalt strongly activates
corrosion. In more than trace amounts, these metals precipitate as
intermetallic compounds, and the precipitate locales function as active
cathodic sites that reduce water, causing the loss of magnesium.[38] Controlling the quantity of these metals improves corrosion resistance. Sufficient
manganese overcomes the corrosive effects of iron. This requires precise control over composition, increasing costs.[38] Adding a cathodic poison captures atomic hydrogen within the structure of a metal. This prevents the formation of free hydrogen gas, an essential factor of corrosive chemical processes. The addition of about one in three hundred parts
arsenic reduces the corrosion rate of magnesium in a salt solution by a factor of nearly ten.[38][39]
High-temperature creep and flammability
Magnesium's tendency to
creep (gradually deform) at high temperatures is greatly reduced by alloying with zinc and
rare-earth elements.[40] Flammability is significantly reduced by a small amount of
calcium in the alloy.[38] By using rare-earth elements, it may be possible to manufacture magnesium alloys that are able to not catch fire at higher temperatures compared to magnesium's
liquidus and in some cases potentially pushing it close to magnesium's boiling point.[41]
Magnesium has three stable
isotopes: 24 Mg, 25 Mg and 26 Mg. All are present in significant amounts in nature (see table of isotopes above). About 79% of Mg is 24 Mg. The isotope 28 Mg is radioactive and in the 1950s to 1970s was produced by several nuclear power plants for use in scientific experiments. This isotope has a relatively short half-life (21 hours) and its use was limited by shipping times.
The nuclide 26 Mg has found application in
isotopicgeology, similar to that of aluminium. 26 Mg is a
radiogenic daughter product of
26 Al, which has a
half-life of 717,000 years. Excessive quantities of stable 26 Mg have been observed in the
Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some
carbonaceous chondritemeteorites. This anomalous abundance is attributed to the decay of its parent 26 Al in the inclusions, and researchers conclude that such meteorites were formed in the
solar nebula before the 26 Al had decayed. These are among the oldest objects in the
Solar System and contain preserved information about its early history.
It is conventional to plot 26 Mg/24 Mg against an Al/Mg ratio. In an
isochron dating plot, the Al/Mg ratio plotted is 27 Al/24 Mg. The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but indicates the initial 26 Al/27 Al ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were separated from a common reservoir.
World production was approximately 1,100 kt in 2017, with the bulk being produced in China (930 kt) and Russia (60 kt).[44] The United States was in the 20th century the major world supplier of this metal, supplying 45% of world production even as recently as 1995. Since the Chinese mastery of the Pidgeon process the US market share is at 7%, with a single US producer left as of 2013: US Magnesium, a
Renco Group company in
Utah born from now-defunct
Magcorp.[45]
In September 2021, China took steps to reduce production of magnesium as a result of a government initiative to reduce energy availability for manufacturing industries, leading to a significant price increase.[46]
Pidgeon process
China is almost completely reliant on the
silicothermicPidgeon process (the reduction of the oxide at high temperatures with silicon, often provided by a ferrosilicon alloy in which the iron is but a spectator in the reactions) to obtain the metal.[47] The process can also be carried out with
carbon at approx 2300 °C:
2MgO (s) + Si (s) + 2CaO (s) → 2Mg (g) + Ca 2SiO 4(s)
In the United States, magnesium is obtained principally with the Dow process, by
electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride from
brine and
sea water. A saline solution containing Mg2+ ions is first treated with
lime (calcium oxide) and the precipitated
magnesium hydroxide is collected:
The hydroxide is then converted to
magnesium chloride by treating the hydroxide with
hydrochloric acid and heating of the product to eliminate water:
Mg(OH) 2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl 2(aq) + 2H 2O(l)
The salt is then electrolyzed in the molten state. At the
cathode, the Mg2+ ion is reduced by two
electrons to magnesium metal:
Mg2+ + 2 e− → Mg
At the
anode, each pair of Cl− ions is oxidized to
chlorine gas, releasing two electrons to complete the circuit:
2Cl− → Cl 2(g) + 2 e−
YSZ process
A new process, solid oxide membrane technology, involves the electrolytic reduction of MgO. At the cathode, Mg2+ ion is reduced by two
electrons to magnesium metal. The electrolyte is
yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ). The anode is a liquid metal. At the YSZ/liquid metal anode O2− is oxidized. A layer of graphite borders the liquid metal anode, and at this interface carbon and oxygen react to form carbon monoxide. When silver is used as the liquid metal anode, there is no reductant carbon or hydrogen needed, and only oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.[48] It has been reported that this method provides a 40% reduction in cost per pound over the electrolytic reduction method.[49]
History
The name magnesium originates from the
Greek word for locations related to the tribe of the
Magnetes, either a district in
Thessaly called
Magnesia[50] or
Magnesia ad Sipylum, now in Turkey.[51] It is related to
magnetite and
manganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as separate substances. See
manganese for this history.
In 1618, a farmer at Epsom in England attempted to give his cows water from a local well. The cows refused to drink because of the water's bitter taste, but the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes. The substance obtained by evaporating the water became known as
Epsom salts and its fame spread.[52] It was eventually recognized as hydrated magnesium sulfate, MgSO 4·7 H 2O.[53]
The metal itself was first isolated by
Sir Humphry Davy in England in 1808. He used electrolysis on a mixture of
magnesia and
mercuric oxide.[54]Antoine Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Davy's first suggestion for a name was 'magnium',[54] but the name magnesium is now used in most European languages.[55]
Uses
Magnesium metal
Magnesium is the third-most-commonly-used structural metal, following
iron and aluminium.[56] The main applications of magnesium are, in order: aluminium alloys,
die-casting (alloyed with
zinc),[57] removing
sulfur in the production of iron and steel, and the production of
titanium in the
Kroll process.[58]
Magnesium is used in lightweight materials and alloys. For example, when infused with silicon carbide
nanoparticles, it has extremely high specific strength.[59]
Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace construction metals and was used for German military aircraft as early as World War I and extensively for German aircraft in World War II. The Germans coined the name "
Elektron" for magnesium alloy, a term which is still used today. In the commercial aerospace industry, magnesium was generally restricted to engine-related components, due to fire and corrosion hazards. Magnesium alloy use in aerospace is increasing in the 21st century, driven by the importance of fuel economy.[60] Recent developments in metallurgy and manufacturing have allowed for the potential for magnesium alloys to act as replacements for aluminium and steel alloys in certain applications.[61][62]
Rieke et al developed a "general approach for preparing highly reactive metal powders by reducing metal salts in ethereal or hydrocarbon solvents using alkali metals as reducing agents" known to us as the
Rieke process.[63] In 1974 he told about
Rieke-magnesium.[64] Rieke followed this up in 1989 with the identification of
Rieke metals.[65]
Porsche used magnesium alloy frames in the
917/053 that won Le Mans in 1971, and continues to use magnesium alloys for its engine blocks due to the weight advantage.[70]
Volkswagen Group has used magnesium in its engine components for many years.[71]
BMW used magnesium alloy blocks in their
N52 engine, including an aluminium alloy insert for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high-temperature magnesium alloy
AJ62A. The engine was used worldwide between 2005 and 2011 in various 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 series models; as well as the Z4, X1, X3, and X5.[73]
Chevrolet used the magnesium alloy AE44 in the 2006 Corvette
Z06.[74]
Both AJ62A and AE44 are recent developments in high-temperature low-
creep magnesium alloys. The general strategy for such alloys is to form
intermetallic precipitates at the
grain boundaries, for example by adding
mischmetal or
calcium.[75]
Electronics
Because of low density and good mechanical and electrical properties, magnesium is used for manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop and
tablet computers, cameras, and other electronic components.[76] It was used as a premium feature because of its light weight in some 2020 laptops.[77]
Magnesium materials in medicine
Recent research promises a high development potential of magnesium materials as resorbable
implant material (e.g. as stent) for the human body.[78][79] Common magnesium alloy elements are
calcium and
zinc,[80] but also rare earth and silver are investigated.[81] The biodegradable behavior of magnesium is a decisive advantage when used as an implant material to be used for a limited period of time, as it would dissolve without risk after a certain period of time. This would eliminate the risks and costs of an operation to remove the implant.[82]
Other
Magnesium, being readily available and relatively nontoxic, has a variety of uses:
Magnesium is flammable, burning at a temperature of approximately 3,100 °C (3,370 K; 5,610 °F),[23] and the
autoignition temperature of magnesium ribbon is approximately 473 °C (746 K; 883 °F).[83] It produces intense, bright, white light when it burns. Magnesium's high combustion temperature makes it a useful tool for starting emergency fires. Other uses include flash
photography, flares,
pyrotechnics, fireworks sparklers, and trick birthday candles. Magnesium is also often used to ignite thermite or other materials that require a high ignition temperature. Magnesium continues to be used as an
incendiary element in warfare.[84]
Alloyed with aluminium with aluminium-magnesium alloys being used mainly for
beverage cans,[89] sports equipment such as golf clubs,[90] fishing reels,[91] and archery bows and arrows.[92]
Many car and aircraft manufacturers have made engine and body parts from magnesium.[93]
The important interaction between
phosphate and magnesium ions makes magnesium essential to the basic
nucleic acid chemistry of all cells of all known living organisms. More than 300
enzymes require magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes using or synthesizing
ATP and those that use other
nucleotides to synthesize
DNA and
RNA. The ATP molecule is normally found in a
chelate with a magnesium ion.[106]
Nutrition
Diet
Spices, nuts,
cereals,
cocoa and vegetables are good sources of magnesium.[15] Green leafy vegetables such as
spinach are also rich in magnesium.[107]
Dietary recommendations
In the
UK, the
recommended daily values for magnesium are 300 mg for men and 270 mg for women.[108] In the U.S. the
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are 400 mg for men ages 19–30 and 420 mg for older; for women 310 mg for ages 19–30 and 320 mg for older.[109]
An adult body has 22–26 grams of magnesium,[15][112] with 60% in the
skeleton, 39% intracellular (20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular.[15] Serum levels are typically 0.7–1.0 mmol/L or 1.8–2.4
mEq/L. Serum magnesium levels may be normal even when intracellular magnesium is deficient. The mechanisms for maintaining the magnesium level in the serum are varying
gastrointestinal absorption and
renal excretion. Intracellular magnesium is correlated with intracellular
potassium. Increased magnesium lowers
calcium[113] and can either prevent hypercalcemia or cause hypocalcemia depending on the initial level.[113] Both low and high protein intake conditions inhibit magnesium absorption, as does the amount of
phosphate,
phytate, and
fat in the gut. Unabsorbed dietary magnesium is excreted in feces; absorbed magnesium is excreted in urine and sweat.[114]
Detection in serum and plasma
Magnesium status may be assessed by measuring serum and erythrocyte magnesium concentrations coupled with
urinary and
fecal magnesium content, but intravenous magnesium loading tests are more accurate and practical.[115] A retention of 20% or more of the injected amount indicates deficiency.[116] As of 2004, no
biomarker has been established for magnesium.[117]
Magnesium concentrations in plasma or serum may be monitored for efficacy and safety in those receiving the drug
therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential
poisoning victims, or to assist in the
forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdose. The newborn children of mothers who received
parenteral magnesium sulfate during labor may exhibit toxicity with normal serum magnesium levels.[118]
Deficiency
Low plasma magnesium (
hypomagnesemia) is common: it is found in 2.5–15% of the general population.[119] From 2005 to 2006, 48 percent of the
United States population consumed less magnesium than recommended in the
Dietary Reference Intake.[120] Other causes are increased renal or gastrointestinal loss, an increased intracellular shift, and proton-pump inhibitor antacid therapy. Most are asymptomatic, but symptoms referable to
neuromuscular,
cardiovascular, and metabolic dysfunction may occur.[119]Alcoholism is often associated with magnesium deficiency. Chronically low serum magnesium levels are associated with
metabolic syndrome,
diabetes mellitus type 2,
fasciculation, and hypertension.[121]
Therapy
Intravenous magnesium is recommended by the ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death for patients with ventricular
arrhythmia associated with
torsades de pointes who present with
long QT syndrome; and for the treatment of patients with digoxin induced arrhythmias.[122]
Hypomagnesemia, including that caused by alcoholism, is reversible by oral or parenteral magnesium administration depending on the degree of deficiency.[125]
There is limited evidence that magnesium supplementation may play a role in the prevention and treatment of
migraine.[126]
Sorted by type of magnesium salt, other therapeutic applications include:
Magnesium carbonate powder is used by athletes such as
gymnasts,
weightlifters, and
climbers to eliminate palm sweat, prevent sticking, and improve the grip on gymnastic apparatus, lifting bars, and climbing rocks.
Overdose
Overdose from dietary sources alone is unlikely because excess magnesium in the blood is promptly filtered by the
kidneys,[119] and overdose is more likely in the presence of impaired renal function. In spite of this,
megadose therapy has caused death in a young child,[128] and severe
hypermagnesemia in a woman[129] and a young girl[130] who had healthy kidneys.
The most common symptoms of overdose are
nausea,
vomiting, and
diarrhea; other symptoms include
hypotension, confusion, slowed heart and
respiratory rates, deficiencies of other minerals,
coma,
cardiac arrhythmia, and death from
cardiac arrest.[113]
Function in plants
Plants require magnesium to synthesize
chlorophyll, essential for
photosynthesis.[131] Magnesium in the center of the
porphyrin ring in chlorophyll functions in a manner similar to the iron in the center of the porphyrin ring in
heme.
Magnesium deficiency in plants causes late-season yellowing between leaf veins,[132] especially in older leaves, and can be corrected by either applying
epsom salts (which is rapidly
leached), or crushed
dolomiticlimestone, to the soil.
Magnesium metal and its alloys can be explosive hazards; they are highly flammable in their pure form when molten or in powder or ribbon form. Burning or molten magnesium reacts violently with water. When working with powdered magnesium,
safety glasses with
eye protection and UV filters (such as welders use) are employed because burning magnesium produces
ultraviolet light that can permanently damage the
retina of a human eye.[135]
Magnesium is capable of reducing
water and releasing highly flammable
hydrogen gas:[136]
Therefore, water cannot extinguish magnesium fires. The hydrogen gas produced intensifies the fire. Dry sand is an effective smothering agent, but only on relatively level and flat surfaces.
Hence, carbon dioxide fuels rather than extinguishes magnesium fires.
Burning magnesium can be quenched by using a
Class D dry chemical fire extinguisher, or by covering the fire with
sand or magnesium foundry flux to remove its air source.[138]
^The thermal expansion is
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