"What the world is today, good and bad, it owes to
Gutenberg . Everything can be traced to this source, but we are bound to bring him homage, … for the bad that his colossal invention has brought about is overshadowed a thousand times by the good with which mankind has been favored."
American writer
Mark Twain (1835−1910)
[1]
German inventions and discoveries are ideas, objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, in
Germany or abroad by a person from Germany (that is, someone born in Germany – including to non-German parents – or born abroad with at least one German parent and who had the majority of their education or career in Germany). Often, things
discovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.
German-born
Albert Einstein , world-famous physicist
Germany has been the home of many
famous inventors, discoverers and engineers , including
Carl von Linde , who developed the modern
refrigerator .
[2]
Ottomar Anschütz and the
Skladanowsky brothers were early pioneers of
film technology , while
Paul Nipkow and
Karl Ferdinand Braun laid the foundation of the
television with their
Nipkow disk and
cathode-ray tube (or Braun tube) respectively.
[3]
[4]
Hans Geiger was the creator of the
Geiger counter and
Konrad Zuse built the first fully automatic digital
computer (
Z3 ) and the first commercial computer (
Z4 ).
[5]
[6] Such German inventors, engineers and industrialists as Count
Ferdinand von Zeppelin ,
[7]
Otto Lilienthal ,
Gottlieb Daimler ,
Rudolf Diesel ,
Hugo Junkers and
Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology, while
Karl Drais invented the bicycle.
[8]
Aerospace engineer
Wernher von Braun developed the
first space rocket at
Peenemünde and later on was a prominent member of
NASA and developed the
Saturn V Moon rocket.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz 's work in the domain of
electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.
[9]
Philipp Reis constructed the first device to transmit a voice via electronic signals and for that the first modern telephone,
[10]
[11] while also coining the term.
[12]
Emil Behring ,
Ferdinand Cohn ,
Paul Ehrlich ,
Robert Koch ,
Friedrich Loeffler and
Rudolph Virchow were among the key figures in the creation of modern medicine, while Koch and Cohn were also founders of
microbiology .
[13]
Georgius Agricola gave
chemistry it´s modern name. He is generally referred to as the father of
mineralogy and the founder of
geology as a scientific discipline, while
Justus von Liebig is considered one of the principal founders of
organic chemistry .
[14]
Otto Hahn is the father of
radiochemistry and discovered
nuclear fission , the scientific and technological basis for the utilization of
atomic energy .
Johannes Kepler was one of the founders and fathers of modern
astronomy , the
scientific method ,
natural and
modern science
[15]
[16]
[17]
Albert Einstein introduced the
special relativity and
general relativity theories for light and gravity in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Along with
Max Planck , he was instrumental in the creation of
modern physics with the introduction of
quantum mechanics , in which
Werner Heisenberg and
Max Born later made major contributions.
[18]
Wilhelm Röntgen discovered
X-rays .
[19]
The movable-type
printing press was invented by German blacksmith
Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. In 1997,
Time Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium.
[20] In 1998, the
A&E Network ranked Gutenberg as the most influential person of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium" countdown.
[20]
The following is a list of inventions, innovations or discoveries known or generally recognised to be German.
Anatomy
Pepsin in complex with pepstatin
Comparison of a normal aged brain (left) and the brain of a person with
Alzheimer's (right)
Animals
Hagenbeck with his lions
Archaeology and Paleontology
The Berlin
Archaeopteryx specimen (A. siemensii )
Arts
The
Venus of Hohle Fels
The
Bauhaus emblem
Astronomy
Illustration of
Kepler's second law
Neptune
Biology, genetics and memory
Three types of
cell division
Overview of the
citric acid cycle
Chemistry
Illustration of a
sugar beet .
Achard 's findings were the start of the modern sugar industry.
Döbereiner's lamp , often hailed as the first
lighter
The
Haber process is fundamental in creating
fertiliser .
The bottom half of a glass
Petri dish
GSI 's linear
particle accelerator UNILAC , where
hassium was discovered
1625:
Glauber's salt by
Johann Rudolf Glauber
[100]
1669: Discovery of
phosphorus by
Hennig Brand in
Hamburg
[101]
1706:
Prussian blue by
Heinrich Diesbach in
Berlin
[102]
1724: Temperature scale
Fahrenheit by
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
[103]
1746: Basic theory of isolating
zinc by
Andreas Marggraf
[104]
c. 1770 – c. 1785: Identification of
molybdenum ,
tungsten ,
barium and
chlorine by
Carl Wilhelm Scheele
[105]
1773 or earlier: discovery of
oxygen (although
Joseph Priestley published his findings first) by Carl Wilhelm Scheele
[106]
1789: Discovery of the elements
uranium
[107] and
zirconium
[108] by
Martin Heinrich Klaproth
1799: Production of sugar from
sugar beets , the beginning of the modern
sugar
industry ,
[109] by
Franz Karl Achard , after foundations were laid by Andreas Marggraf
[110]
19th century:
Eupione by
Carl Reichenbach
[111]
1817: Discovery of
cadmium by
Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann and
Friedrich Stromeyer
[112]
1820s:
Oechsle scale by
Ferdinand Oechsle
[113]
1823:
Döbereiner's lamp , often hailed as the first
lighter ,
[114]
[115] by
Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner
1828: Discovery of
creosote by Carl Reichenbach
[116]
1828, 1893: Isolation (1828) of
nicotine by Wilhelm Heinrich Posselt and Karl Ludwig Reimann.
[117] The structure (1893) of nicotine was later discovered by
Adolf Pinner and
Richard Wolffenstein
[118]
1828: Synthesis of
urea by
Friedrich Wöhler (
Wöhler synthesis )
[119]
1830: Creation of
paraffin wax by Carl Reichenbach
[120]
1832: Discovery of
pittacal by Carl Reichenbach
[121]
1834:
Melamine by
Justus von Liebig
[122]
1834: Discovery of
phenol by
Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge
[123]
1836 (or 1837): Discovery of
diatomaceous earth (Kieselgur in German) by Peter Kasten on the northern slopes of the
Haußelberg hill, in the
Lüneburg Heath in
North Germany
[124]
1838:
Fuel cell by
Christian Friedrich Schönbein
[125]
1839: Discovery of
ozone by Christian Friedrich Schönbein
[126]
1839, 1930: Discovery of
polystyrene by
Eduard Simon , was made a commercial product by
IG Farben in 1930
[127]
c. 1840: Nitrogen-based
fertiliser by Justus von Liebig,
[128]
[129] important innovations were later made by
Fritz Haber and
Carl Bosch (
Haber process ) in the 1900s
[130]
1846: Discovery of
guncotton by Christian Friedrich Schönbein
[131]
1850s:
Siemens-Martin process by
Carl Wilhelm Siemens
[132]
c. 1855:
Bunsen burner by
Robert Bunsen and
Peter Desaga
[133]
1855:
Chromatography by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge
[134]
1857:
Siemens cycle by Carl Wilhelm Siemens
[135]
1859:
Pinacol coupling reaction by
Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig
[136]
1860–61: Discovery of
caesium and
rubidium by
Robert Bunsen and
Gustav Kirchhoff
[137]
1860:
Erlenmeyer flask by
Emil Erlenmeyer
[138]
1863–64: Discovery of
indium by
Ferdinand Reich and
Hieronymous Theodor Richter
[139]
[140]
[141]
1863: First synthesis of
trinitrotoluene (TNT) by
Julius Wilbrand
[142]
1864: First synthesis of
barbiturate by
Adolf von Baeyer , first marketed by
Bayer under the name "
Veronal " in 1903
[143]
1864:
Wothlytype uranium-based photographic printing process patented
[63]
[64]
1865: Synthetic
indigo dye by Adolf von Baeyer, first marketed by
BASF in 1897
[144]
c. 1870:
Brix unit by
Adolf Brix
[145]
1872: Synthesis of
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) by
Eugen Baumann
[146]
1877:
Poly(methyl methacrylate) by
Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig , was made a commercial product (Plexiglas ) by
Otto Röhm in 1933
[147]
1882:
Tollens' reagent by
Bernhard Tollens
[148]
1883:
Claus process by
Carl Friedrich Claus
[149]
1884:
Paal–Knorr synthesis by Carl Paal and
Ludwig Knorr
[150]
1885–1886: Discovery of
germanium by
Clemens Winkler
[151]
1887:
Petri dish by
Julius Richard Petri
[152]
1888:
Büchner flask and
Büchner funnel by
Ernst Büchner
[153]
1895:
Hampson–Linde cycle by
Carl von Linde
[135]
1897:
Galalith by Wilhelm Krische
[154]
1898:
Polycarbonate by
Alfred Einhorn , was made an commercial product by
Hermann Schnell at
Bayer in 1953 in
Uerdingen
[155]
1898: Synthesis of
polyethylene , the most common
plastic , by
Hans von Pechmann
[156]
1898: First synthesis of
purine by
Emil Fischer . He had also coined the word in 1884.
[157]
Early 20th century:
Schlenk flask by
Wilhelm Schlenk
[158]
1900s:
Haber process by
Carl Bosch and
Fritz Haber
[130]
1902:
Ostwald process by
Wilhelm Ostwald
[159]
1903: First commercially successful
decaffeination process by
Ludwig Roselius (later of
Café HAG ), after foundations were laid by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge in 1820
[160]
1907:
Thiele tube by
Johannes Thiele
[161]
1913:
Coal liquefaction (
Bergius process ) by
Friedrich Bergius
[162]
[163]
1913: Identification of
protactinium by
Oswald Helmuth Göhring
[164]
1925: Discovery of
rhenium by
Otto Berg ,
Ida Noddack and
Walter Noddack
[165]
1928:
Diels–Alder reaction by
Kurt Alder and
Otto Diels
[166]
1929: Discovery of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by Karl Lohmann
[167]
1929: Creation of
styrene-butadiene (synthetic rubber) by
Walter Bock
[168]
1935:
Karl Fischer titration by
Karl Fischer
[169]
1937: Creation of
polyurethane by
Otto Bayer at IG Farben in
Leverkusen
[170]
1953:
Ziegler–Natta catalyst by
Karl Ziegler
[171]
1954:
Wittig reaction by
Georg Wittig
[172]
1981–1996: Discovery and creation of
bohrium by
Peter Armbruster and
Gottfried Münzenberg at the
GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in
Darmstadt
[173]
1982: Discovery and creation of
meitnerium at the
GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research
[174]
1984: Discovery and creation of
hassium at the
GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research
[173]
1994: Discovery and creation of
darmstadtium at the
GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research
[175]
1994: Discovery and creation of
roentgenium at the
GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research
[176]
1996: Discovery and creation of
copernicium at the
GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research
[177]
Clothing, cosmetics and fashion
A pair of
jeans
Computing
Gottfried Leibniz created the modern
binary numeral system .
Konrad Zuse is regarded as the inventor of the (modern)
computer .
Construction, architecture and shops
Werner von Siemens invented the first electric
elevator .
Electric
chainsaw
Cuisine
Black Forest cake
Currywurst
Gummy bears were first created by
Haribo .
Hamburger with French fries and a
beer
A glass of
Bitburger , a German-style
Pilsner . The Pilsner was invented by Bavarian
Josef Groll .
Hot dog
Jägerschnitzel with fettuccine
The German
döner kebap
Education, language and printing
Recreated
Gutenberg press
Lithograph of
Alois Senefelder
Entertainment, electronics and media
The
Nipkow disk laid the foundation for the
television .
A
cathode-ray tube as found in an
oscilloscope
A
SMS shown on a mobile phone
Geography, geology and mining
Map of
Pangaea
Household and office appliance
Justus von Liebig invented the modern
mirror .
Food and drinks into a
refrigerator
Mathematics
Illustration the
intersection of two sets (
set theory )
Medicine and drugs
Friedrich Sertürner was the first to isolate
morphine .
Lines of
cocaine prepared for insufflation
A pair of
contact lenses
Aspirin was invented by
Bayer .
Advertisement for Bayer
Heroin
The first human
EEG recording obtained by
Hans Berger in 1924
1796:
Homeopathy by
Samuel Hahnemann
[337]
1803–1827: First isolation of
morphine by
Friedrich Sertürner in
Paderborn ; first marketed to the general public by Sertürner and Company in 1817 as a
pain medication ; and the first commercial production began in 1827 in
Darmstadt by
Merck .
[338]
1832: First synthesis of
chloral hydrate , the first
hypnotic drug ,
[339] by
Justus von Liebig at the University of Giessen;
[340]
Oscar Liebreich introduced the drug into medicine in 1869 and discovered its hypnotic and sedative qualities.
[341]
1840: Discovery and description of
Graves-Basedow disease by
Karl Adolph von Basedow
[342]
1847:
Kymograph by
Carl Ludwig
[343]
1850s: Microscopic
pathology by
Rudolf Virchow
[344]
1850–51:
Ophthalmoscope by
Hermann von Helmholtz
[345]
[346]
1852: First
complete blood count by
Karl von Vierordt
[347]
1854:
Sphygmograph by Karl von Vierordt
[348]
1855: First synthesis of the
cocaine alkaloid by
Friedrich Gaedcke ;
[349] development of an improved purification process by
Albert Niemann in 1859–1860, who also coined the name "cocaine".
[350] First commercial production of cocaine began in 1862 in Darmstadt by Merck.
[351]
1881: First modern
caesarean section performed by
Ferdinand Adolf Kehrer (introduction of the transverse incision technique)
[352]
1882:
Adhesive bandage (Guttaperchapflastermulle ) by
Paul Carl Beiersdorf
[353]
1882: Discovery of the
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria which causes
tuberculosis , by
Robert Koch
[354]
1884: Discovery of the
pathogenic bacterium
Corynebacterium diphtheriae which causes
diphtheria , by
Edwin Klebs and
Friedrich Löffler
[355]
1884:
Koch's postulates by Robert Koch and Friedrich Loeffler, based on earlier concepts described by
Jakob Henle
[356]
1884: Discovery of the
vibrio cholerae bacteria which causes
cholera , by Robert Koch
[357]
1887:
Amphetamine by Romanian-born
Lazăr Edeleanu in
Berlin
[358]
1887:
Löffler's medium by Friedrich Loeffler
[359]
1888: First successful
afocal
scleral glass
contact lenses by
Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick
[360]
1890:
Diphtheria antitoxin by
Emil von Behring
[361]
1890s-1910s: modern scientific
psychiatry ,
psychopharmacology and
psychiatric genetics by
Emil Kraepelin
1897–1899:
Aspirin by
Felix Hoffmann or
Arthur Eichengrün at
Bayer in
Elberfeld
[362]
1897:
Heroin by Felix Hoffmann at Bayer in Elberfeld
[363]
1897:
Protargol by Arthur Eichengrün.
[364]
1897: Discovery of the cause of
foot-and-mouth disease (
Aphthovirus ) by Friedrich Loeffler
[365]
1907–1910: First synthesis of
arsphenamine , the first
antibiotic ,
[366] by
Paul Ehrlich and
Alfred Bertheim .
[367] In 1910 marketed by
Hoechst under the name Salvarsan .
[368]
1908–1911: Creation of
dihydrocodeine
[369]
1909, 1929: First
intrauterine device (IUD) by Richard Richter (of
Waldenburg , then part of Germany; in 1909), and the first ring (
Gräfenberg's ring , 1929) used by a significant number of women by
Ernst Gräfenberg .
[370]
1909:
Labello by Dr.
Oscar Troplowitz
[371]
1912–1916: Invention of the modern
condom by Poland-born
Julius Fromm in Berlin
[372]
1912:
MDMA by
Merck chemist
Anton Köllisch
[373]
[374]
1914: Development and creation of
oxymorphone
[375]
1916: Creation of
oxycodone by Martin Freund and Edmund Speyer at the
University of Frankfurt
[376]
1920–1924: First synthesis of
hydrocodone by
Carl Mannich and Helene Löwenheim in 1920,
[377] first marketed by former German drug development company
Knoll as Dicodid in 1924.
[378]
1922: Discovery and creation of
desomorphine by Knoll
[379]
1923: Creation of
hydromorphone (Dilaudid ) by Knoll
[380]
1924: First human
electroencephalography (EEG) recording by
Hans Berger . He also invented the electroencephalogram and discovered
alpha waves .
[381]
1929:
Cardiac catheterization by
Werner Forssmann
[382]
1932:
Prontosil by Josef Klarer and Fritz Mietzsch at Bayer
[383]
1934: Synthesis of
Chloroquine by Italian-born
Johann "Hans" Andersag working for Bayer AG
[384]
1937–1939: Creation of
methadone by
Max Bockmühl and
Gustav Ehrhart of
IG Farben
[385]
1939:
Intramedullary rod by
Gerhard Küntscher
[386]
1943:
Luria–Delbrück experiment by
Max Delbrück
[387]
1953:
Echocardiography by
Carl Hellmuth Hertz (with Swedish physician
Inge Edler )
[388]
1961:
Combined oral contraceptive pill by
Schering AG
[389]
[390]
1969:
Articaine (Ultracain), a dental local anesthetic first synthesized by pharmacologist
Roman Muschaweck and chemist
Robert Rippel (former
Hoechst AG )
[391]
[392]
1997:
C-Leg by
Ottobock
[393]
2007:
Small incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) by Walter Sekundo and Marcus Blum
[394]
2020:
mRNA -based
COVID-19 vaccine (
BNT162b2 ) based on research by
Uğur Şahin and
Özlem Türeci
[395]
[396]
Military and (chemical) weapons
German
flamethrowers during World War I (1917)
MP 18
Jerrycans
Replica of the
V-2 rocket
Musical instruments
Tuba
Emile Berliner with his disc
record gramophone
Physics and scientific instruments
Heinrich Hertz laid the foundation of modern
telecommunications with his discoveries.
The first "medical"
X-ray , by
Wilhelm Röntgen (1895)
Max Planck is considered the father of the
quantum theory .
Sculpture of
Einstein 's 1905
E = mc 2 formula at the 2006
Walk of Ideas ,
Berlin
Geiger-Müller counter
Electron microscope constructed by
Ernst Ruska in 1933; two years after his first prototype
Induced
nuclear fission reaction
Sociology, philosophy and politics
Karl Marx (left) and
Friedrich Engels (right)
Otto von Bismarck created the first modern
welfare state worldwide.
Religion, ethics and festivities
Martin Luther
Christmas tree
Sport
A
handball game in progress
The first
Olympic torch relay finished in
Berlin (
1936 )
Tourism and recreation
Prinzessin Victoria Luise
Toys and games
A replica
Steiff model of the 55PB
Magnavox Odyssey
Transportation
Original
Laufmaschine of 1817; the first bicycle
Benz Patent-Motorwagen
A
Reitwagen replica at the
Mercedes-Benz Museum
Otto Lilienthal testing one of his gliders (1895)
The Daimler Motor-Lastwagen was the world's first
truck .
1655: First self-propelled
wheelchair by
Stephan Farffler
[585]
1817: The first
bicycle (
dandy horse , or Laufmaschine in German) by
Baron
Karl von Drais
[586]
[587]
1817:
Tachometer by
Diedrich Uhlhorn
[588]
[589]
1834: First practical rotary
electric motor by
Moritz von Jacobi
[590]
1838: First
electric boat by Moritz von Jacobi
[591]
1876:
Otto engine by
Nicolaus Otto
[592]
1879–1881: First
electric locomotive
[593] and
electric tramway (
Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway ) by
Siemens & Halske
[594]
[595]
1882:
Trolleybus (
Electromote ) by
Werner von Siemens
[596]
1885: First
automobile (
Benz Patent-Motorwagen ) by
Karl Benz in
Mannheim
[597]
[598]
1885, 1894: First
motorcycle (
Daimler Reitwagen ) by
Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach .
[599] The motorcycle of
Hildebrand & Wolfmüller from 1894 (created by Heinrich and Wilhelm Hildebrand, and
Alois Wolfmüller ) was the first machine to be called a "motorcycle" and the world's first production motorcycle.
[600]
1885: First modern
internal combustion engine by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach
[601]
1886: First automobile on four wheels, by Gottlieb Daimler
[602]
1886:
Motorboat by
Lürssen , in commission of Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, in
Bremen
[603]
1888:
Driver's license by Karl Benz
[604]
1888: The world's first
filling station was the city pharmacy in
Wiesloch
[605]
1888: Flocken Elektrowagen , regarded by some as the first real
electric car ,
[606] by
Andreas Flocken in
Coburg
1889:
V engine by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach
[607]
1891:
Taximeter by
Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn
[608]
1893:
Diesel engine ,
diesel fuel and
biodiesel by
Rudolf Diesel in
Augsburg
[609]
1893:
Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat , the first
aeroplane to be serially produced,
[610]
[611] by
Otto Lilienthal
1893:
Zeppelin , the first
rigid airship ,
[612] by
Ferdinand von Zeppelin
[613]
1895: Internal combustion engine
bus by
Daimler
[614]
1896: First
truck (
Daimler Motor-Lastwagen ) by Gottlieb Daimler
[615]
1897:
Flat engine by Karl Benz
[616]
1897: Internal combustion engine
taxicab by Gottlieb Daimler
[617]
1901:
Mercedes 35 hp , regarded by some as the first real modern automobile,
[618] by
Paul Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach. The car also had the world's first
drum brakes .
[619]
1902, 1934: Concept of
maglev by Alfred Zehden (1902) and
Hermann Kemper (1934).
[620]
1902: First high voltage
spark plug by
Gottlob Honold
[621]
1902: First practical
speedometer by Otto Schultze
[622]
[623]
1906:
Gyrocompass by
Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe
[624]
1909, 1912: The world's first passenger
airline ;
DELAG in
Frankfurt (1909).
[625] The company also employed the first
flight attendant ,
Heinrich Kubis (1912).
[626]
1912: The world's first
diesel locomotive by Gesellschaft für Thermo-Lokomotiven Diesel-
Klose -
Sulzer GmbH from Munich
[627] and Borsig from Berlin
[628]
1915: The world's first all-metal aircraft (
Junkers J 1 ) by
Junkers & Co
[629]
1916:
Gasoline direct injection (GDI) by Junkers & Co
[630]
1928: First
rocket-powered aircraft (
Lippisch Ente ) by
Alexander Lippisch
[631]
1935:
Swept wing by
Adolf Busemann
[632]
1936: The first operational and practical
helicopter (
Focke-Wulf Fw 61 ), by
Focke-Achgelis
[633]
1939: First
aircraft with a
turbojet (
Heinkel He 178 ), and the first practical
jet aircraft , by
Hans von Ohain
[634]
1943:
Krueger flap by
Werner Krüger
[635]
1951:
Airbag by Walter Linderer
[636]
1957:
Wankel engine by
Felix Wankel
[637]
1960s:
Defogger by
Heinz Kunert
[638]
Late 1960s:
Oxygen sensor by
Robert Bosch GmbH
[639]
1995:
Electronic stability control (ESC) by Robert Bosch GmbH and
Mercedes-Benz
[640]
[641]
See also
References
^ Childress, Diana (2008).
Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press . Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books. p.
122 .
ISBN
978-0-7613-4024-9 .
^
a
b
"Carl von Linde" . Science History Institute . 1 June 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2019 .
^
a
b Bellis, Mary (6 April 2017).
"Television History - Paul Nipkow" . ThoughtCo . Retrieved 8 November 2019 .
^
"Pioneers' Page" .
^ Bianchi, Luigi.
"The Great Electromechanical Computers" .
York University . Archived from
the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011 .
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